I 


Breaking  the 
Wilderness 


The  Story  of  the  Conquest  of  the  Far  West,  from  the  Wanderings 

of  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  to  the  First  Descent  of  the  Colorado  by 

Powell,  and  the  Completion  of  the   Union  Pacific 

Railway,    with    Particular    Account    of  the 

Exploits   of   Trappers  and   Traders 

Frederick  S.  Dellenbaugh 

Member  of  the  Powell  Colorado  River  Expedition  ;   Author  of  * '  The  Romance  of 
the  Colorado  River,"  "The  North  Americans  of  Yesterday,"  etc. 

* 'Accursed  wight! 
He  crowds  us  from  our  hills.      He  hacks  and  hews. 
Digs  up  our  metals,  sweats  and  smelts  and  brews." 

Hauptmann,  The  Sunken  Bell. 


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OF  THE 

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G-  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York   and    London 
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Copyright,  1905 

BY 

FREDERICK  S.  DELLENBAUGH 


TTbe  ftniciterboclter  press,  l^evo  ]I?orlt 


TO 

ALMON   HARRIS  THOMPSON 

WHOSE  ABILITY,  FORESIGHT,  AND  GOOD  JUDGMENT 

SO    VITALLY    AIDED    THE    COLORADO    RIVER     EXPEDITION    OF 

1871    AND    1872 

AND  FOR  MORE  THAN  THIRTY  YEARS 

HAVE  SO  GREATLY  PROMOTED 

THE  SUCCESS  OF  GOVERNMENT  EXPLORATION   AND  SURVEY 

THIS  VOLUME 

IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 

TO  COMMEMORATE  TRAVELS  TOGETHER 

IN 

THE  WILDERNESS 


^»»^iL^ 


9F  THE 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


IN  this  volume  I  have  endeavoured  to  present  a  review  in 
chronological  order  of  the  important  events  which  con- 
tributed to  breaking  the  Wilderness  that  so  long  lay  untamed 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  mentioning  with  as  much  detail  as 
possible  in  a  single  popular  volume  the  principal  persons  and 
happenings  in  proper  sequence,  but  paying  special  attention  to 
the  trapper  and  trader  element,  which,  more  than  any  other, 
dispelled  the  mysteries  of  the  vast  region. 

I  believe  this  to  be  the  first  book  so  fully  to  treat  the  sub- 
ject as  a  consecutive  narrative.  By  means  of  it,  not  only  may 
the  story  of  the  struggle  to  master  the  Wilderness  be  examined, 
but  the  place  of  the  trapper  and  trader  in  the  work  of  its  reduc- 
tion, and  that  of  Coronado,  Mackenzie,  Lewis  and  Clark, 
Fremont,  Powell,  and  similar  explorers,  may  be  determined 
with  reference  to  each  other  as  well  as  with  reference  to  the 
general  order. 

Many  people  seem  to  know  little  about  Western  history ; 
about  Coronado,  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  or  even  about  Mackenzie; 
and  others  are  by  no  means  clear  as  to  where  in  the  historical 
scale  these  characters  belong.  While  the  name  of  Daniel 
Boone  is  familiar  to  every  child,  names  of  men  equally  eminent 
in  the  same  pursuits,  like  Jedediah  Smith,  Bridger,  Fitzpatrick, 
etc!,  are  scarcely  known  at  all.  Nor  have  many  persons  a  just 
appreciation  of  the  numerous  attempts  that  were  made  to  ex- 
plore the  Western  Wilderness,  or  of  the  extremely  early  period 
in  the  history  of  North  America  when  these  attempts  began. 
Many  are  surprised,  therefore,  to  learn  that  the  first  European 
entrance  into  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  occurred 
over  three  and  a  quarter  centuries  ago.  At  least  partly,  this 
vagueness  is  due  to  the  one-sidedness  up  to  the  present  of  the 
usual  works  dealing  with  American  history,  most  of  which  are 
only  histories  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  with  mere 
offhand  references  to  the  important  events  of  the  region  beyond 


vi  Preface 

the  Mississippi.  Numerous  details  are  presented  of  early  Vir- 
ginia and  of  New  England,  but  the  happenings  in  New  Mexico 
and  in  California,  and  the  great  West  generally,  are  dismissed 
wnh  a  few  superficial  notes. 

Within  the  last  year  or  two  much  has  been  written  about 
Lewis  and  Clark,  and  consequently  their  grand  exploit  is  well 
known,  but  its  relation  in  the  popular  mind  as  to  accom- 
plishment and  position  with  reference  to  other  explorations  is 
often  quite  uncertain.  It  therefore  appeared  to  me  that  a 
single  volume  which  should  tell  the  Wilderness  story  in  un- 
broken sequence,  with  special  emphasis  on  the  trapper  and 
trader,  would  be  of  value.  I  have  consequently  shown  the  first 
attacks  by  sea  and  land,  and  the  gradual  closing  in  on  all  sides, 
through  the  matchless  trail-breaking  of  the  trappers  and  traders, 
down  to  the  year  when  Powell  practically  finished  this  particu- 
lar white  man's  task  by  his  bold  and  romantic  conquest  of  the 
Colorado, — the  year  when  the  first  railway  trains  crossing  the 
continent  began  a  new  era.  In  order  that  the  subject  might 
be  still  clearer  and  more  comprehensive,  I  have  gone  farther 
and  have  told  the  story  of  the  chief  denizens  of  the  pristine 
Wilderness:  the  beaver,  the  buffalo,  and  their  close  associates, 
those  indomitable,  iron-nerved  people,  the  Amerinds;  the 
North-Americans  of  yesterday. 

Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  describe  with  precision  the  route 
of  an  explorer  without  searching  his  original  story,  and,  in  my 
studies,  this  has  not  always  been  practicable.  For  example,  I 
do  not  know  where  the  journals  of  Hunt  and  Bonneville  now 
are,  if  extant.  Irving's  interpretation  seems  fairly  accurate, 
but  as  he  was  entirely  unfamiliar  with  the  region  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  his  description  is  not  always  clear.  In 
other  cases,  especially  in  that  of  Verendrye,  I  have  relied  on 
the  transcripts  of  others.  The  trail  of  Coronado  I  have  long 
studied  with  special  care,  and  I  have  reached  the  conclusions 
embodied  in  the  map  on  page  1 15, —conclusions  entirely  at 
variance  with  all  accepted  authorities,  but  which  I  feel  confi- 
dent, nevertheless,  are  in  the  main  correct. 

One  early  explorer  in  the  Minnesota  and  Hudson  Bay 
regions  I  have  not  mentioned.     This  is  Radisson,  who,  it  is 


Preface  vii 

claimed,  saw  the  upper  Mississippi  before  Marquette.  The 
omission  was  an  oversight.  Miss  A.  C.  Laut  has  given  a  con- 
vincing account  of  his  travels  in  her  Pathfinders  of  the  West,  to 
which  I  take  pleasure  in  referring  the  reader  for  information 
on  this  point.' 

A  completed  book  is  the  mirror  of  the  writer's  shortcom- 
ings. I  hope  the  reflections  which  may  fall  to  my  lot  in  this 
one  will  not  be  too  painful,  for  I  have  had  in  contemplation 
others  to  fill  in  a  general  scheme.  One  starts  with  a  desire  for 
perfection,  but  without  the  resources  of  a  Carnegie  he  is  apt 
to  fall  so  far  short  of  the  mark  that  he  fears  to  look  in  the  glass 
at  all. 

With  the  Wilderness,  however,  I  can  claim  some  degree  of 
familiarity,  for  I  may  be  said  to  have  been  "in  at  the  death," 
as  I  was  one  of  Powell's  companions  down  the  Colorado  on  his 
second  voyage,  1871-72,  and  have  been  over  portions  of  almost 
every  one  of  the  principal  historical  trails.  I  have  travelled 
there  on  foot,  on  horseback,  by  boat,  by  waggon,  and  by  rail- 
way,— even  by  Pullman  "Palace"  car.  I  have  lived  under  its 
open  sky  through  summers  and  through  winters ;  its  snows,  its 
rains,  its  burning  heat,  have  baptised  me  one  of  its  children. 
In  some  cases  my  footsteps  have  been  among  the  first  of  our 
race  to  break  the  surface;  and  if  I  have  not  visited  every  nook 
and  corner  of  it  during  the  last  thirty  four  years  it  is  the  fault 
of  my  purse,  not  of  my  spirit. 

My  remarks  on  supplying  whiskey  to  the  natives  may  by 
some  be  deemed  too  severe,  but  in  my  own  opinion  there  is  no 
expression  of  condemnation  adequate  to  denounce  the  debauch- 
ment  of  the  American  tribes  by  this  foul  means.  It  was  a  crime 
against  civilisation,  against  humanity;  a  cruel,  dastardly  out- 
rage against  these  people  who  by  its  means  largely  have  been 
reduced  to  the  lowest  degree  and  are  sneered  at  by  those  who 
have  profited  by  their  debasement.  In  the  final  chapter  I  have 
thought  it  desirable  to  add  a  footnote  to  the  effect  that  I  am 
neither  a  teetotaler  nor  a  prohibitionist  for  the  reason  that  my 

^  See  also  Suite  (Benjamin),  Dicouverte  du  Mississippi  en  ib^g.  In  Proceedings 
and  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  Second  Series,  vol.  ix.,  (1903), 
section  i.,  pp.  3-44.     Radisson's  veracity  is  not  unquestioned. 


viii  Preface 

condemnatory  remarks  might  otherwise  be  attributed  to  the 
prejudice  of  zeal,  rather  than  to  indignation  at  the  low  devices 
resorted  to  by  white  men  to  work  the  Amerinds  for  their  own 
§rofit.  A  great  deal  that  is  base  and  mean  is  now  excused  on  . 
the  ground  that  this  is  a  commercial  age,  but  I  can  only  re- 
mark that  if  there  is  to  be  no  standard  for  measuring  modern 
conduct  but  financial  profit,  the  white  man's  footsteps  are 
surely  on  the  wrong  trail. 

The  reader  in  following  these  pages  must  remember  that 
comfort  is  generally  relative,  and  that  what  appears  hard  from 
the  chimney  corner  may  have  been  comparative  luxury.  I 
have  never  slept  more  comfortably  anywhere  than  under  a  foot 
of  snow, 

I  have  had  much  kind  assistance  and  am  grateful  for  it.  I 
am  particularly  obliged  to  Mr.  William  J.  SchiefTelin  for  the 
generous  and  unlimited  use  of  valuable  books  from  his  library; 
to  Mr.  E.  H.  Harriman  for  transportation  favours;  also  for  the 
same  to  Mr.  S.  K.  Hooper;  to  Mr.  F.  M.  Bishop  for  the 
loan  of  a  volume  on  Jacob  Hamblin  not  otherwise  obtain- 
able; to  Mr.  O.  D.  Wheeler  and  the  Montana  Historical 
Society  for  cuts;  to  Captain  E.  L.  Berthoud,  Edgar  A.  Rider, 
and  Jack  Sumner  for  manuscript  notes;  to  Mr.  L.  H.  Johnson 
for  manuscript  notes  and  photographs;  to  Mr.  B.  L.  Young 
for  a  special  drawing  of  the  rock  pecking  of  a  buffalo  in 
southern  Utah;  to  Mr.  R,  H.  Chapman,  Mr.  J.  B.  Lippincott, 
Mr.  J.  K.  Hillers,  Mr.  E.  E.  Howell,  Mr.  Delancy  Gill,  for 
photographs;  and  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Ethnology 
for  the  use  of  illustration  material.  I  would  also  here  thank 
my  publishers  for  their  constant  consideration,  for  presents  of 
books  pertaining  to  my  subject,  and  for  the  loan  of  others;  and 
Mr.  H.  C.  Rizer,  chief  clerk  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  for  assistance  and  courtesies  extending  over  a  long 
series  of  years.  Finally  I  wish  to  express  my  renewed  thanks 
for  many  favours  to  the  veteran  geographer  and  explorer, 
A.  H.  Thompson,  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  to 
whom  I  have  the  honour  of  dedicating  this  book. 

Frederick  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

New  York,  December  7,  1904. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Extent  of  the  Wilderness— The  First  White  Man— The  Backbone  of  the 
Continent — A  Vanished  Sea  and  a  Petrified  Ocean — The  Biggest  Trees 
— The  Spike  of  Gold      ..........         i 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Intelligent  Beaver,  Chief  of  the  Rodents — A  Four-footed  Engineer — 
A  Builder  of  Houses,  Artificial  Canals,  Dams,  Ponds,  and  Lakes — 
Beaver  Meadows — A  Masterful  Woodchopper — A  Tail  for  the  Epicure 
— Muskbogs — The  Fatal  Trap       ........       13 

CHAPTER  III 

A  Monarch  of  the  Plains — The  Hunchback  Cows  of  Cibola — A  Boon  to  the 
Frontiersman — Wide  Range  of  the  Bison — Marrow  Bones  for  the  Epi- 
cure— Washington  Irving  a  Buffalo  Hunter — The  Rushing  Run  of  the 
Bison  Herd— The  Sacred  White  Buffalo  Cow  Skin— A  Calf  with  a  Bull 
Head — Wolves  and  White  Bears 32 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  People  of  the  Wilderness  — Men  without  Rights — Killing  by  Alcohol — 
Change  in  the  Character  of  the  Native — Growth  of  the  War  Spirit — 
Classification  by  Language — Dwellers  in  Tents  and  Builders  of  Houses 
— Farmers  and  Hunters — Irrigation  Works — The  Coming  of  the  Horse 


54 


CHAPTER  V 

Three  Conditions  of  Wilderness  Life — Farming  in  the  Driest  Country — The 
Cache — The  Clan,  the  Unit  of  the  Tribe — Hospitality — Totems  and 
Totem  Marks — Dress — An  Aboriginal  Geographer — The  Winter  Life — 
The  War-path,  the  Scalp-lock,  and  the  Scalp-dance — Mourning  the  Lost 
Braves — Drifting •         .       75 


X  Contents 

CHAPTER  VI 

PAGE 

Lost  in  the  Wilderness — Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Great   Medicine   Man — The  Wil- 
derness Traversed — Spanish   Slave  Hunters — The  Northern  Mystery — 
A    The  Monk  and  the  Negro — The  Great  Coronado  Expedition — The  Set- 
tlement of  Nevv^  Mexico  and  the  Pueblo  Rebellion — California  Missions 
— Escalante  to  Salt  Lake  Valley     ........     103 

CHAPTER  VII 

Soto  and  the  Mississippi — The  Gate  to  the  Wilderness — The  Voyageur — 
Champlain  to  Mackinaw — Pandemonium  of  Wars — Down  the  Missis- 
sippi to  Soto's  Grave — Louisiana — La  Salle  and  his  Death — Coureurs 
de  Bois — First  Sight  of  the  Northern  Rockies — Where  Rolls  the  Oregon 
—  1  he  American  Revolution  .........     126 

CHAPTER  VIII 

The  United  States  Borders  the  Wilderness — American  Ships  to  the  Pacific 
Coast — The  North-West  Company — Mackenzie  Spans  the  Continent — 
Meares  and  Vancouver  Baffled  by  Breakers — Captain  Robert  Gray, 
Victor — The  Columbia  at  Last — The  Louisiana  Purchase  a  Pig  in  a 
Poke,  and  a  Boundless  Wilderness — Claims  All  Round  to  the  Centre — 
The  Perfidious  Napoleon — The  Spanish  Sentinel  Steps  Back         .         .     144 

CHAPTER  IX 

Tefferson's  Hobby — Two  Noblemen — An  Indefinite  Transaction — Expedi- 
tion to  the  Wilderness — Fort  Mandan — The  Roche  Jaune  and  the  First 
View  of  the  Great  Range — The  Long-lost  Sister — Depths  of  the  Un- 
known— Starvation  on  the  Trail — Music  of  the  r>reakers — Fort  Clatsop 
— The  Return — Medicine  Men  Again — Two  Natives  Shot — Premature 
Death  of  the  Captain 156 

CHAPTER  X 

\  The  Metropolis  of  the  Far  Wilderness — James  Pursley  Arrives — Pike  up  the 
Mississippi  and  across  the  Plains — A  Spanish  War  Party — A  Breast- 
work to  Mark  the  Site  of  Pueblo — Polar  Weather  and  No  Clothing — 
Pike  Sees  the  Grand  Peak — San  Luis  Valley — The  Americans  Captured 
by  Diplomacy — Pursley  Finds  Gold — Malgares,  the  Gentleman — The 
Pike  Party  Sent  Home 175 

CHAPTER  XI 

A  Race  for  Life — Colter  Wins — The  Missouri  Fur  Company — The  Ameri- 
can Fur  Company — The  Pacific  Fur  Company— XTrreSt  Project  Fore- 
doomed—  Disaster  at  the  Columbia  Bar  —  The  TTestruction  of  The 
I  Tonquin — Hunt  Starts  for  the  Columbia  Overland — The  Voyageurs  j 
Baulked — The  Caldron  Linn — Dog  Steak  at  a  Premium— rMisery  and 
Danger — Success  at  Last 193 


Contents  xi 


CHAPTER  XII 

PAGE 

Eastward  from  Astoria — The  War  of  1812  on  a  Business  Basis  in  Oregon — 
Astoria  Becomes  Fort  George — The  Pacific  Fur  Company  Expires — 
Louisiana  Delimited  at  Last  —  The  Expedition  of  Major  Long  —  A 
Steamboat  on  the  Missouri  —  The  First  Man  on  Pike's  Peak  —  The 
Elusive  Red  River  Refuses  to  be  Explored — Closing  on  the  Inner  Wil- 
derness— The  Spanish  Sentinel  Turns  Mexican     .....     215 

CHAPTER  XIII 

The  Wilderness  Breaker — Lisa  Closes  his  Account — General  Ashley  Takes  a 
Hand — The  Religious  Jedediah — Green  River  Valley — What  a  White 
Bear  could  Do — Ashley  Navigates  Red  Canyon  of  Green  River — Dis- 
covery of  Salt  Lake — Ashley  Retires  Rich — The  Rocky  Mountain  Fur 
Company  —  Sylvester  and  James  O.  Pattie  —  Pattie's  Journey  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Colorado — The  Great  Circuit  of  Jedediah  Smith       .         .     229 

CHAPTER  XIV 

A  Brood  of  Wilderness  Breakers — Kit  Carson  the  Dauntless — Campbell, 
1827,  Santa  Fe  to  San  Diego — Becknell  and  the  Santa  Fe  Trail — Wheel 
Tracks  in  the  Wilderness — The  Knight  in  Buckskin  Dies — Pegleg  Smith 
the  Horse  Trader — The  Apache  Turns  Forever  against  the  American 
— New  Mexico  the  Dreamland — Wolfskill  Breaks  a  Trail  to  the  Pacific 
— Bonneville,  Captain  Courteous  ;  and  W^|;eth,  Leader  Hopeful — Bon- 
neville Po'fgeTs  a  Duty  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     253 

CHAPTER  XV 

Bonneville  Dropped  from  the  Army — Indian  Shooters— The  Mythical  Rio 
Buenaventura — Bonneville  Twice  to  the  Columbia — Wjeth  Again — The 
Oregon  Trail— The  Big  Thunder  Canoe— A  Wilderness  Whiskey  Still 
— Missionaries  to  Oregon — The  North-West  Boundary  Settlement — 
Decline  of  the  Beaver — Through  the  Canyon  of  Lodore  on  the  Ice — 
Fremont,  the  Scientific  Pathfinder — The  Spanish  Sentinel  Turned  to 
the  Wall— Fortune's  Blindfold 276 

CPIAPTER  XVI 

Free  Distribution  of  Fremont's  Reports— Latter  Day  Saints — Murder  of  a 
Prophet — Brigham  Young  Guides  Saints  to  the  Wilderness — The  State 
of  Deseret — California  the  Golden — Massacre  at  Mountain  Meadows 
— Old  Jacob,  the  Mormon  Leatherstocking — Steam  on  the  Lower  Colo- 
rado— Old  Jacob  Finds  the  Crossing  of  the  Fathers — Circumtouring  the 
Grand  Canyon — Solitudes  of  the  Colorado — Last  of  the  Wilderness 
Problems— Powell  Solves  it  by  Masterful  Courage — The  Iron  Trail — 
The  End  and  the  Beginning  .........     303 

Index 339 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FAGB 

The  Sierra  Blanca     .         .         .         .         .         Frontispiece 
Blanca  Peak,  14,390.      Baldy  Peak,  14,176.      Blanca  Peak  is  the  third 

highest  in  Colorado. 
The  point  of  view  is  on  Trinchera  Creek  looking  north  from  an  altitude 
of  about  8000  feet.  To  the  left  is  the  San  Luis  Valley  through 
which  flows  the  Rio  Grande,  and  to  the  right  are  the  two  high 
passes  known  as  Veta  and  Sangre  de  Cristo,  The  Sierra  Blanca 
forms  the  southern  end  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range  and  was  one 
of  the  great  landmarks  of  the  Wilderness. 
Sketch  in  oils  made  at  the  place  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

The  Backbone  of  the  Continent     .         .         .         ,         ,         3 
Photograph  by  R.  H.  Chapman,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Wilderness  of  the  Upper  Missouri  .         .         .         ,        •        5 

Photograph  by  R.  H.  Chapman,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

The  Yosemite  Valley 7 

Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 

The  Grizzly  Giant 9 

Height,  285  feet.     Circumference,  93  feet. 
Copyright  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 

A  Wilderness  Home 11 

Photograph  by  R.  H.  Chapman,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

The  Mountain  Part  of  the  Wilderness  ,        ,        ,       14 

Relief  map  by  E.  E.  Howell. 

No  Place  for  Beaver 15 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Killers,  U.  S.  Geol.   Survey. 

Beaver  Country •         •       17 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


§iv  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Great  Beaver  Dam — Grass  Lake,  260  Feet  Long         .       19 

From  Morgan's  American  Beaver. 

Red  Canyon  —  Green  River 20 

Where  Ashley  went  for  beaver  in  1825. 
Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

Beaver  Canal .       22 

From  Morgan's  American  Beaver. 

Lower  Colorado  River — Mouth  of  Gila  on  Right     .       23 

Where  Pattie  trapped  beaver  in  1826. 
Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 

Trees  Cut  by  Beavers        .         .         .         ...         .         .26 

From  Morgan's  American  Beaver. 

Beaver  Trap        .         .         .         .         .         ,         ,         ,         .29 
The  Beaver  .         .         .         .         .         ,         .         ,         .30 

Copyright,  1901,  by  Doubleday,  Page,  &  Co, 
The  Monarch  of  the  Plains     .         .         .         .         •         .33 

The  figure  a  photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 

Picture  of  Buffalo  on  Cliff  Wall,  Southern  Utah  .       37 

Pecked  drav^^ing,  copied  by  B.  L.  Young. 

The  Grand  Teton  from  Jackson's  Hole         •         •         •       39 

The  buffalo  reached  this  valley  by  1824. 
Photograph  by  W.  H.  Jackson,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Canyon  of  Lodore  —  Green  River 41 

Canyons  of  this  character  are  almost  continuous  from  a  few  miles  be- 
low the  Union  Pacific  Railway  crossing. 
Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

Head  of  Bison  Bull 43 

Specimen  shot  by  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Dec.  17,  1883. 
From  Roosevelt's  Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman, 

Buffalo  Chase    . '45 

After  Catlin,     From  Smithsonian  Report,  1888. 

Character  of  Buffalo  Range  in  Green  River  Valley       47 
Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U.  S.,  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

Canyon  of  Desolation  —  Green  River     .         .        .        •      5© 

A  barrier  to  the  buffalo's  westward  movement. 
Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U,  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 


Illustrations  xv 

PAGB 

Mandan  Buffalo  Dance 51 

After  Catlin.     From  Smithsonian  Report,  1885. 

Buffalo  Swimming  Missouri  River   .         ,        ,         .         .       52 

After  Catlin.     From  Smithsonian  Report,  1885. 

A  Village  of  the  Plains 55 

This  form  of  tipi  was  readily  taken  down  and  as  readily  set  up  agaiu. 
Photograph  by  U.  S.  Government. 

A  Pai  Ute  Family  at  Home .57 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

A  Ute  Mountain  Home       ....        ...       58 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Village  of    the    Puebloan    Type.      View  in    the    Moki 

Town  of  Mishongnavi,  Arizona  ....       59 

Photograph  by  U.  S.  Bu.  Eth. 

Umatilla  Tipi  of  Rush  Mats  on  Columbia  River  .       61 

From  Lewis  and  Clark,  by  O.  D.  Wheeler. 

Amerind  Linguistic  Map 62 

After  Bu.  of  Eth.  Seventh  An.  Rep. 

A  Puebloan  Farmhouse       . 64 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Plenty-Horses,  a  Cheyenne 65 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

A  Pai  Ute  Modernised 67 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Ruin  Called  Casa  Grande,  Arizona        ....       69 

Photograph  by  Cosmos  Mindeleff.  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Eth. 

South    Portion    of    the    Tewa    Pueblo    of    Taos,    New 

Mexico .       71 

Photograph  by  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Eth. 

Navajo  Silver  Beads  —  actual  size  ....       72 

From  U.  S.  Bu.  Eth. 

South-western    Baskets  —  Apache,  Pima,  etc.      Navajo 

Blankets  behind  .......       73 

Photograph  by  J.  B.  Lippincott,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


^vi  Illustrations 

PAGE 

MoKi  Woman  Modelling  a  Clay  Jug       ,        ,         .         .76 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh.  ^ 

Earthenware  from  Moki  Region 77 

The   Ruins    in    Canyon   de    Chelley,    Arizona,   Called 

"  Casa    Blanca."      These   were   once   Connected  .       78 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Killers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Old  Mandan  House 79 

From  Wonderland,  1903,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

A  Young  Cocopa 80 

Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 

Rear  View  of  Mandan  Village,  Showing  Burial-Ground       81 

Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  48,  vol.  i.;  Catlin's  Eight  Years.  Reproduc- 
tion from  Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  ii. 

A  Dakota  of  the  Plains 83 

Figures  from  photograph  by  U.  S.  Government. 

A  Uinta  Ute 84 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Umatilla  Woman  and  Child      ......       85 

From  Wonderland,  1904,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Mandan  Village  on  the  Missouri,  1832  ....       86 
Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  47,  vol.  i.;  C^iiMn'^  Eight  Years.    Reproduc- 
tion from  Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  ii. 

A  Group  of  Crow  Chiefs 87 

Photograph  by  U.  S.  Government  about  1875. 

Granary — Cliffs  of  Green  River,  Thirty  Feet  above 

Ground 90 

Photograph  by  L.  H.  Johnson. 
Interior  of  a  Moki  House 91 

The  women  at  the  back  are  grinding  corn,  while  those  at  the  right  are 
baking  bread  on  a  hot  slab  in  paper-like  sheets.  Above  is  the 
chimney-hood.     U.  S.  Bu,  Eth. 

Sitting  Bull 93 

From  Wonderland,  igoi,    Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


Illustrations 


xvu 


Reproduc- 


Bellochknahpick  —  The  Bull  Dance 

Mandan  ceremonial.      Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  67,    vol.  i.,  Catlin's 
Eight  Years.   Reproduction  from  Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  ii. 

Details  of  Navajo  Loom  Construction   . 
U.  S.  Bu.  Eth. 

A  Navajo       .         .         .         .         . 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Scalp-Dance  of  the  Sioux 

Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  297,  vol  ii.,  Catlin's  Eight  Years. 
tion  from  Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  ii. 

A  Group  of  Dakotas 

Photograph  by  U.  S.  Government  about  1875. 

Necklace  of  Human  Fingers 
House  Ruin  on  Green  River,  Utah  . 

Photograph  by  L.  H.  Johnson, 

Alarcon's   Ships   in    the    Tidal    Bore,    Mouth    of    the 
Colorado,  1540       ........ 

Drawing  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Character   of    the   Seven   Cities  which   Friar   Marcos 
so  Glowingly  Described 

Drawing  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

New  Mexico,  1540  to  1630 

Church  and  Mission  of  San  Xavier  del  Bac,  Arizona 

Mission  founded  1699.     The  church  here  shown  was  finished  in  1797. 

On  the  Yuma  Desert 

Character  of  the  country  around  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 

Church  of  the  Mission  San  Carlos  de  Monterey 

Mission  founded  in  1770. 
Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 

Glen  Canyon,  Colorado  River  .         . 

This  shows  the  nature  of  the  Colorado  where  Escalante  crossed  in  1776. 
The  surface  on  each  side  is  barren  sandstone. 
Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

Barriers  of  Adamant,  Mission  Range      .         .        .        . 

Photograph  by  R,  H.  Chapman,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


PAGE 

94 


95 
96 

97 


99 

lOI 


05 


109 

115 
118 


T23 


128 


♦viii  Illustrations 

PAGE 

A  Reception  Committee      .         .         .         .         .         .         .131 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  3.  Geol.  Survey. 

In  the  Heart  of  the  Wilderness — Southern  Utah  .  135 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri 137 

From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  O.  D,  Wheeler. 

Great  Fountain  Geyser — Yellowstone  Park        .        .     141 

From  Wonderland,  IQOI,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Summits  of  the  Backbone 145 

Gray's  Peak,  14,341  feet  ;  Torrey's  Peak,  14,336  feet. 
Photograph  by  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Mouth  of  the  Columbia  from  Astoria     .        .        .        .     149 

Cape  Disappointment,  left  distance.     From   The   Trail  of  Lewis  and 
Clark,  O.  D.  Wheeler. 

Map  of  the  Wilderness  Showing  American  Acquisitions     154 
Mount  Hood  —  From  Cloud  Cap  Inn        ....     159 

From  Wonderland,  1903,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Canyon  of  the  Gates  of  the  Mountains        .        .         .     165 

From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  O.  D.  Wheeler. 

Junction  of  the  Madison  and  Jefferson         .        .        .     167 

The  Madison  at  left,  the  Jefferson  at  the  right  centre. 
From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  O.  D.  Wheeler. 

The  Dalles  of  the  Columbia 169 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Snake  River  below  Lewiston.     On  Lewis  and  Clark's 

Trail 171 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Route    of    Lewis   and   Clark   from    Maria's    River    to 

Traveller's  Rest  and  Return 173 

From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  by  O.  D.  Wheeler. 

New  Mexican  Cart 177 

Drawing  by  Julian  Scott.     From  Bulletin  of  the  Eleventh  Census. 

A  Rocky  Mountain  Torrent 179 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

A  Glade  for  the  Weary.     Altitude  8000  Feet     .         .     183 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


Illustrations  xix 

PAGE 

Pike's  Peak  through  the  Gateway  of  the  Garden  of 

THE  Gods 187 

(Pike  got  his  view  of  it  from  a  mountain  to  the  left,  not  seen.) 
Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 

Vegetation  of  the  South-West         .....     191 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Canyon  of  the  Yellowstone  from  Grand  View     .        .     195 

From   Wonderland,  1903,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

A  Mansion  of  the  Wilderness  .         .         .         .        .        .     197 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Sawmill  Geyser,  Yellowstone  Park         ....     201 

From  Wonderland,  1904,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

The  Deadly  Rattler 203 

From  The  Mystic  Mid-Region,  by  A.  J.  Burdick. 
Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co, 

Shoshone  Falls,  Idaho,  from  South  Side,  Below  .         .     205 
Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Shoshone  Falls,  Snake  River,  Idaho,  from  Below         .     207 

Sketch  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh, 

Shoshone  Falls,  Snake  River,  Idaho,  from  Above,  South 

Side 209 

Photograph  by  G,  K,  Gilbert. 

Boat  Made  of  Framework  of  Sticks  Covered  with  Bi- 
son- OR  Horse-Hide 211 

Frequently  used  in  early  days  of  the  West. 

From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  by  O,  D.  Wheeler. 

On  the  Virgin  River,  Southern  Utah    ....     217 
Near  where  Escalante  went  in  1776.    Pine  Valley  Mountain  in  distance. 
Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

An  Arizona  Thistle .     220 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

A  Full  Larder    .........     223 

From  Wonderland,  1904,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Standing  Rocks,  Common  in  the  Wilderness  .         .        .     227 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


XX  Illustrations 

PAGB 

In  the  Mountain  Wilderness  —  Vulture  Peak      .        .     230 
Photograph  by  R.  H.  Chapman,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Before  Sunrise 231 

From  Wonderland,  1904,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Green  River  Valley 233 

Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage. 

Arrow  Weed  in  the  Yuma  Country         .         .      -  .        .     236 

Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 

Red  Canyon  of  Green  River 239 

Length,  25  miles.  Walls  1800  to  2500  feet  high.  Average  width  of 
water,  250  feet.  Ashley  was  the  first  white  man  to  pass  through 
this  gorge. 

Ashley  Fall,  Red  Canyon,  Green  River         .         .         .     241 

Ashley's  name  was  found  on  right  of  the  picture  on  one  of  the  huge 
fallen  rocks,  about  at  the  top  of  the  old  dead  tree. 

Lower  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone    .         .         .         .        .     245 
From  Wonder  land,  1901,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

On  the  Gila  River,  Arizona 248 

This  is  the  place  chosen  for  the  San  Carlos  irrigation  dam. 
Photograph  by  J.  B,  Lippincott. 

Headwaters  of  Virgin  River    .         .         .         .         .        .     251 

Named  Adams  River  by  Jedediah  Smith  in  1826. 
Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Prairie  Dogs 254 

From  Wonderland,  1901,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

On  the  Yuma  Desert.     A  Dying  Horse  ....     256 

Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 

An  Old  Beaver  Haunt      .         .         .         .         •        .        .     261 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

The  Heart  of  the  Sierra 263 

Photograph  by  Watkins. 

A  Rose  of  New  Mexico .     266 

Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 

On  the  Gila 268 

Photograph  by  J.  B.  Lippincott. 


Illustrations  xxi 

PAGE 

Captain  Bonneville 271 

A  General  when  this  was  taken,  long  after  his  trapping  career. 
Photograph  from  Montana  Historical  Society. 

"Old  Faithful"  Geyser,  Yellowstone  Park  .         .     274 

From  Wonderland,  1901,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Elk  in  Winter 277 

From  Wonderland,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

In  the  Sierra  Nevada 279 

On  the  Merced,  Yosemite  Valley.     Walker,   1833,  was  probably  the 

first  white  man  here. 
Copyright  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 

A  Wilderness  Waggon  Road 282 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Steamer    "  Yellowstone  "    Ascending   the   Missouri   in 

1833 ^285 

From  Travels,  etc.,  1832-3-4,  by  Maximilian,   Prince  of  Wied,  1843. 
From  Wonderland,  1904,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Before  the  Sawmill  Comes 289 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

The  Great  or  Lower  Fall  of  the  Yellowstone  .     291 

From  Wonderland,  1904,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Jim  Bridger  in  his  Latter  Days 293 

Photograph  from  Montana  Historical  Society. 

Green   River   from    Green    River   Valley   to    Wonsits 

Valley  .........     295 

Snow-Bound  in  the  Wilderness — 1875       ....     297 

Pencil  sketch  on  the  spot  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Canyon  of  Lodore,  Green  River      .....     299 

The  first  on  record  to  go  through  this  and  the  canyons  immediately  below 
it — that  is,  from  Brown's  Park  to  Wonsits  Valley — was  Joe  Meek 
and  a  party  of  trappers  on  the  ice,  in  the  winter  of  1838-39. 

Photograph  by  E.  O,  Beaman,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

A  Chance  Meeting 301 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

A  Mormon  Sorghum  Mill  and  Evaporating  Pans  .     306 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


xxii  Illustrations 

PAGE 

A  Setback 307 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

In  Council 311 

General  Sherman  third  from  left  of  white  group. 
Photograph  from  United  States  Government. 

The  Steamboat  "  Explorer  " 316 

In  which  Lieutenant  Ives,  in  1858,  ascended  the  Colorado  to  the  foot 

of  Black  Canyon. 
Sketch  by  H.  B.  Mollhausen. 

Where  the  Wilderness  Lingers 319 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Running  the  Colorado -    .     321 

Drawing  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 
Upper  Part  of  Marble  Canyon  —  Colorado  River       .     323 

This  gorge  merges  into  the  Grand  Canyon  at  the  mouth  of  the  Little 
Colorado,  The  length  of  both  together  is  about  300  miles.  The 
first  to  travel  this  distance  were  Powell  and  his  men,  1869. 

The  Grand  Canyon  Region 326 

The  Thousand-Mile  Tree 328 

A  hemlock  looo  miles  from  Omaha. 
Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage. 


Secret  Town  Trestle 

1000  feet  long.     Maximum  height,  90  feet. 
Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage. 

Snow  Sheds  in  the  Sierra 
Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage. 


329 


SST^ 


Adobe  Ruins  of  Green  River  —  Union  Pacific  Terminus     332 

Photograph,  1871,  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

Scene    before    Driving    the   Last   Spike — Promontory 

Point,  Utah,  May  10,  1869 ^^^ 

John  Duff  in  front,  immediately  beneath  engine.     Sidney  Dillon  at  his 

left.     The  Reverend  Doctor  Todd  asking  a  blessing. 
Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage  for  the  Union  Pacific  Railway. 

The  Ames  Monument  —  Union  Pacific  Railway     .         .     334 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


Illustrations  xxiii 

PAGE 

Driving  the  Last  Spike,  3.05  p.m.  (New  York  Time),  May 

10,  1869 335 

Locomotive  "Jupiter"  of  the  Central  Pacific,  and  "  119"  of  the  Union 

Pacific  about  to  meet  when  last  spike  is  driven. 
Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage  for  the  Union  Pacific  Railway. 

The  Last  Tie 336 

Union  Pacific  Railway,  i86g.     Made  of  California  laurel  polished,  and 
with  a  silver  plate  on  the  side. 

The  Last  Spike 337 

Union  Pacific  Railway.     Made  of  gold. 

A  Modern  Fast  Train .     337 

From  Wonderland,  1901,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

The  Mormon  Temple  —  Salt  Lake  City  .         .         .     338 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Canada  Lynx 361 

From  Wonderland,  1904,  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


IV 


b-:y??k\  ^^^ 


^»  •   •  •  •• 


•  •  «  • 
•  «  •  « 


BREAKING  THE  WILDERNESS 


CHAPTER   I 

Extent  of  the  Wilderness — The  First  White  Man— The  Backbone  of  the  Conti- 
nent— A  Vanished  Sea  and  a  Petrified  Ocean — The  Biggest  Trees — The 
Spike  of  Gold. 


THE  natural  habitat  of  man  is  the  wilderness.  No  matter 
how  civilised  he  may  become,  his  heart  turns  with  longing 
to  the  woods,  to  the  sea,  and  to  the  mountains.  There  he  is 
unconventional ;  animals  are  his  compeers,  the  forest  his  friend, 
the  free-flowing  stream  nectar  to  his  lips.  Civilised  peoples, 
after  all,  are  but  wanderers  driven  from  the  Garden  of  Eden 
by  the  sword  of  necessity.  Of  the  virtues  they  claim,  a  large 
proportion  is  imperative,  the  result  of  conflicting  numbers — 
society's  effort  to  preserve  itself.  Men  are  no  better,  no 
worse,  in  the  wilderness  or  in  civilisation;  nor  does  race  or 
colour  appear  exactly  to  define  quality.  By  noting  this  at  the 
outset  we  may  be  inclined  to  be  more  sympathetic;  and  there- 
fore may  better  understand  the  superb  wilderness  which  forms 
the  subject  of  this  work. 

Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire  present  area  of  the  United 
States  was  comprised  in  it,  extending  between  the  north  and 
south  bounds  of  the  Union,  from  the  Mississippi  on  the  one 
hand,  to  the  Pacific  on  the  other;  a  vast  region  of  marvellous 
diversity,  greater  far  than  several  of  the  Old-World  empires 
rolled  into  one.     Up  to  the  hour  when  the  Santa  Maria  flung 

I 


2  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

her  parting  banners  out  and  under  the  steady  will  of  the  Ad- 
miral moved  upon  the  Western  Mystery,  no  European  had 
ever  beheld  the  wide  horizon  of  this  splendid  realm,  nor  yet 
even  dreamed  of  it,  for  whatever  in  the  way  of  exploration 
prior  to  Columbus  the  Northmen  may  have  accomplished  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  America,  we  may  be  sure  not  one  of 
them  ever  set  foot  beyond  the  banks  of  the  Father  of  Waters. 
And  so  this  land,  unknown  to  Europeans,  remained  unknown 
till  the  year  when  Alvar  Nuflez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  escaping  from 
the  terrible  disasters  of  the  Narvaez  Florida  expedition,  in  his 
enforced  long  wanderings,  crossed  the  lower  margin,  now  the 
State  of  Texas,  and  in  1536,  less  than  four  decades  after  the 
Discovery,  gave  to  expectant  Europe  first  news  of  the  "hunch- 
back cows"  and  the  great  interior.  That  was  a  day  of  marvels. 
After  Mexico  and  Peru  anything !  Though  we  may  smile  at 
the  imaginings  of  those  iron-nerved  Spaniards,  they  were  not 
inconsistent  with  their  time.  Now  the  mighty  tract  is  well 
known  to  us,  but  our  knowledge  has  come  piecemeal  through 
centuries  of  endeavour,  the  last  portion  of  the  unknown  yield- 
ing only  so  late  as  1869.  It  is  a  romantic  story.  In  these 
pages  the  salient  features  will  be  traced  with  special  attention 
to  the  doings  of  the  trappers  and  traders  who  bore  in  its  con- 
quest so  dominating  an  influence. 

In  the  beginning  it  will  be  well  to  glance  at  the  main  facts 
of  the,  region,  and  see  what  it  was  that  the  newcomers  were 
compelled  to  encounter  and  overcome  before  the  land  became 
theirs.  Vast  mountain  chains  there  were,  turbulent  rivers, 
deserts  and  semi-deserts,  and  forbidding  gorges.  Almost 
through  the  middle,  trending  north-westerly  and  south-easterly, 
stretched  the  great  Backbone  of  the  continent,  the  Shining 
Mountains,  or,  as  we  now  call  them,  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
with  many  peaks  reaching  up  beyond  the  timber-line  and  into 
the  realm  of  perpetual  snow,  peaks  now  familiar  under  the 
names  of  early  explorers  like  Pike,  Long,  James,  Fremont, 
etc.,  and  whose  meandering  crest  composed  the  Continental 
Divide,  casting  the  rains  on  one  side  into  the  broad  Pacific, 
and  on  the  other  side  into  the  tides  that  laved  the  shores  of 
Europe.     For  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year  deep  snows 


4  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

upon  these  heights  prevented  all  crossing,  except  at  great 
hazard.  This  mountain  range  was  at  the  same  time  the  west- 
ern limit  of  the  most  remarkable  and  bountiful  river  valley  in 
all  the  world,  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  whose  other  edge 
was  bounded  by  the  verdant  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies,  and 
which  came  within  a  stone's  throw  of  the  Niagara  cataract 
and. the  Great  Lakes. 

Four  large  rivers  of  immense  length  took  their  rise  towards 
the  north  on  the  summits  of  the  Backbone,  the  greatest  three 
springing  like  triplets  of  a  single  mother  from  practically  the 
same  spot  in  what  is  now  Wyoming.  One  of  these,  rushing 
toward  the  north-west  over  a  cataract  that  rivals  Niagara,  and 
over  falls  and  wild  rapids,  swept  into  the  Pacific  through  a 
line  of  dangerous  breakers  which,  notwithstanding  the  labours 
of  our  best  engineers,  still  remains  a  barrier  to  the  entrance. 
This  was  the  "River  of  the  West,"  now  the  Columbia,  taking 
its  name  from  the  ship  of  Captain  Gray,  the  first  to  sail  into 
its  mouth.  Another  river,  the  real  continuation  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, ran  its  course  for  some  three  thousand  miles  before 
joining  the  parent  stream  at  a  point  still  more  than  a  thou- 
sand miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  navigable  in  high-water 
season  for  boats  of  moderate  draught  for  about  two  thousand 
miles  of  its  length  above  the  junction.  This  was  the  Missouri, 
at  first  the  main  highway  from  the  east  into  the  wilderness, 
leading  the  trappers  and  traders  to  the  very  threshold  of  the 
great  mountains.  The  third  river,  the  Seedskedee,  the  Rio 
Colorado  Grande  of  the  Spaniards,  now  the  Green  and  Colo- 
rado, started  just  over  the  range  at  the  head  of  the  Missouri 
and  the  Columbia,  and  leaping  down  the  westerly  precipices  in 
bold  cataracts,  made  for  the  south-west  and  the  gulf  now 
called  California,  never  heeding  the  mountain  barriers,  but  for 
half  its  two  thousand  miles  of  length  cleaving  through  them, 
a  series  of  terrifying  chasms,  deep  and  difficult,  where  its 
waters  are  torn  by  hundreds  of  loud  rapids,  and  whose  tribu- 
tary chasms  unite  with  the  mother  gorges  to  interpose  almost 
insurmountable  obstacles  in  the  path  of  the  explorer, — the  last 
portion  of  the  wilderness  to  be  vanquished  and,  though  van- 
quished, yet  to  this  day  formidable  and  defiant.     The  fourth 


A  Petrified  Ocean  5 

river,  less  in  magnitude  and  vigour  than  the  others,  but  never- 
theless fractious,  rose  some  miles  southward  of  their  birthplace 
on  the  rugged  slopes  of  spurs  of  the  great  range,  and  sweeping 
to  the  south  and  south-east  entered  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This 
was  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  now  abbreviated  to  Rio  Grande, 
and  forming  for  a  long  distance  the  boundary  of  Mexico.  It 
was  on  this  river  that  the  first  settlements  were  made  in 
the  wilderness,  by  Europeans,  in  what  is  now  New  Mexico. 


..«^ 


tf* 


■-if^t^ 


*»     ■    '*'S»^ 


Wilderness  of  the  Upper  Missouri. 

Photograph  by  R.  H.  Chapman,  U.  S,  Geol.  Survey. 

East  of  the  huge  central  mountain  system  there  rolled 
away  from  the  base  of  the  range  to  the  Mississippi  endless 
plains  resembling  a  petrified  ocean;  the  prairies,  treeless,  sub- 
lime in  their  immensity.  For  about  half  the  distance  from 
the  mountains  to  the  river,  approximately  as  far  as  the  looth 
meridian,  this  enormous  territory  was  well-nigh  rainless,  thus 
presenting  an  additional  barrier  to  investigation  from  the 
eastward.     The  remaining  half  was  invitingly  fertile.     Across 


6  Breaking-  the  Wilderness 


& 


these  wide  prairies  meandered  eastwardly  several  branches  of 
the  Mis-ouri  and  the  Mississippi,  chief  among  them  the  Platte, 
the  Arkansas,  and  Red  River.  West  of  the  Backbone  lay  a 
maze  of  mountains,  "parks,"  deep  gorges,  now  called  canyons, 
cliffs,  plateaus,  and  valleys,  limited  on  the  far  western  side  by 
a  second  mother-range  rivalling  in  height  and  exterit  and  im- 
penetrability the  central  system  itself.  This  was  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  its  upper  continuation,  the  Cascade  Range. 
About  midway  between  the  two  master  ranges  another,  the 
Wasatch,  extended  northerly  and  southerly,  forming  the  east- 
ern limit  of  the  dry  bed  of  an  ancient  sea  of  which  a  small 
remnant  remained  concentrated  in  a  salt  lake  some  fifty  miles 
in  length.  This  vanished  sea  is  now  known  as  Lake  Bonne- 
ville, its  old  bed  as  the  "Great  Basin."  Its  southern  rim 
breaks  down  from  an  altitude  of  about  ten  thousand  feet  in  a 
series  of  mighty  cliffs,  like  cyclopean  steps,  to  the  canyons  of 
the  Colorado,  and  near  the  summit  of  this  rim  a  river  starts 
north  down  into  the  basin,  sweeping  along  for  many  miles  to 
turn  suddenly  to  the  westward  and  end  in  a  lake  without 
visible  outlet,  in  the  middle  of  a  stretch  of  desert.  This  is 
now  the  Sevier.  West  of  the  salt  lake  another  stream,  the 
Humboldt,  took  its  rise  and,  darting  boldly  toward  the  Sierra 
as  if  to  cut  it  in  twain,  meekly  collapsed  in  a  small  lake  at  the 
foot.  Between  the  Wasatch  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  lay 
the  valley  of  the  Colorado,  already  mentioned,  a  marvellous 
labyrinth  of  canyons  and  cliffs,  of  dead  volcanoes,  lava  beds, 
plateaus,  and  mountain  peaks  of  rare  beauty. 

Some  of  the  stream  branches  took  their  rise  in  a  series  of 
deep  valleys  called  "parks,"  lying  close  within  the  main  range 
and  known  to-day  as  North,  Middle,  and  South  parks,  with 
still  another  below  South  Park,  called  San  Luis  Park,  in  which 
heads  the  Rio  Grande.  Thus  the  wide  area  intervening  be- 
tween the  two  chief  mountain  systems,  the  Rocky  and  the 
Sierra,  was  one  of  extraordinary  topographical  diversity,  pre- 
senting innumerable  minor  mountain  ranges  (most  of  them, 
like  the  mother  chains,  trending  northerly  and  southerly), 
lines  of  high  cliffs  of  great  length,  extensive  plateaus,  and 
wonderful   gorges   like   mountain   ranges   hollowed   out   and 


The  Yosemite  Valley. 
Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 


8  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

turned  upside  down  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  orges  so 
long  and  so  deep  as  to  absolutely  and  completely  separate  the 
areas  lying  on  their  opposite  sides.  East  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains was  the  vast  prairie  land  mentioned,  while  west  of  the 
Sierra  lay  the  sunland  now  known  as  California,  with  the 
moister  region  of  Oregon  immediately  above  it  cut  in  twain 
by  the  Columbia  rushing  triumphantly  to  the  sea.  Here  too 
was  still  another  lesser  mountain  chain,  the  Coast  Range. 

On  the  headwaters  of  the  Yellowstone  branch  of  the  Mis- 
souri was  a  district  of  hot  springs  and  geysers,  famous  now  the 
world  round.  Here  also  were  the  great  falls  of  the  Yellowstone 
and  its  celebrated  canyon,  so  wonderful  in  the  variety  and 
brilliancy  of  its  colouringj  now  held,  by  the  wisdom  of  Congress, 
for  a  National  Park.  Farther  south,  like  a  beacon  for  the 
Christian  pilgrim,  there  shone  aloft,  formed  in  ice  and  snow, 
on  the  topmost  slopes  of  a  high  peak,  the  semblance  of  a  per- 
fect cross.  The  Arkansas,  in  freeing  itself  from  the  mountains, 
carved  through  them  a  long  gorge,  deep  and  narrow,  of  splen- 
did picturesqueness,  which  later  made  a  highway  for  the'loco- 
motive.  Besides  the  Great  Salt  Lake  there  were  broad  salt 
lagoons  farther  south  in  what  is  now  New  Mexico,  ajid  in 
California  likewise  salt  spread  itself  by  tons  and  tons  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  In  Southern  Utah  were  the  superb 
Temples  of  the  Rio  Virgen.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada  was  the 
now  celebrated  Yosemite,  one  of  the  grandest  valleys  on  the 
globe ;  and  there  too  stood  the  largest  known  trees,  patriarchs 
from  a  former  age,  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  with  trunks 
of  enormous  circumference — the  Sequoia.  Here  also  were  the 
redwood  forests,  scarcely  less  noble  than  the  Sequoia.  The 
vegetation  was  as  varied  as  the  topography.  On  the  prairies 
of  what  is  now  Kansas  flourished  the  sensitive  plant,  covering 
the  ground  with  its  lovely  rose-coloured,  rose-scented  blossoms, 
round  as  a  puff-ball,  the  delicate  stems  withering  at  the  touch 
of  a  human  hand,  to  lift  themselves  again  when  the  intruder 
had  withdrawn.  Farther  west  the  antithesis  of  this  exquisitely 
sensitive  growth,  the  cactus,  spread  its  defiant  lances  every- 
where, and  there  it  was  the  human  hand  and  not  the  plant 
which  withered   at  the  touch.     And  the  cactus  was  no  less 


The  Grizzly  Gia. 

Height,  285  feet.     Circumference,  93  feet.     Copyright  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


lo  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

beautifi.l  than  the  sensitive  "rose"  ;  indeed,  more  beautiful, 
for  nothing  could  exceed  the  gorgeousness  of  its  blossoms  of 
various  snades  of  red,  or  yellow,  or  white  as  they  stood  re- 
splendent under  the  glowing  sun  against  the  soft  colour  of  the 
earth. 

At  the  north,  and  on  the  higher  lands  of  the  south,  grew 
the  pine  trees  in  magnificent  forests,  with  the  beautiful  spruce 
and  cedar,  the  latter  attaining  its  noblest  proportions  in  the 
north-west.  Towards  the  south,  on  the  lower  lands,  grew  the 
juniper  and  the  pinon,  the  latter  bearing  a  delicious,  edible 
nut,  a  boon  to  the  native.  In  the  south,  too,  were  the  mesquite 
with  its  sweet  bean,  and  the  splendid  yuccas,  some  of  them 
tree-like  and  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  the  pitahaya,  and 
many  other  plants  strange  to  European  eyes.  These  and  the 
cacti  require  a  dry  climate  and  a  hot  one,  and  the  southern 
portion  of  the  wilderness  was  particularly  dry  and  hot.  The 
extreme  south-western  part  was  the  driest  and  the  hottest,  and 
there  stretches  of  real  desert  interposed  further  obstacles  to 
exploration  and  to  settlement.  On  the  other  hand,  the  climate 
of  the  extreme  north-west  was  the  reverse.  There  mist  and 
rain,  nearly  unknown  in  the  lower  basin  of  the  Colorado,  were 
almost  constant.  But  the  characteristic  of  the  major  part  of 
the  wilderness  was  excessive  dryness,  prohibiting  agriculture 
without  irrigation.  The  high  peaks,  receiving  snow  and  rain 
in  plenty,  dealt  out  the  moisture  generously  through  creeks 
and  rivers  upon  the  parching  plains  roundabout. 

Thus  there  were  wide  deserts  as  well  as  regions  of  humidity ; 
an  immense  range  in  climate  with  a  corresponding  range  in 
life  zones,  till  the  biologist  discovered  in  this  area  specimens 
ranging  from  the  boreal  to  the  tropical.  The  animals  were  of 
all  kinds  found  on  the  North  American  continent.  There 
were  scorpions,  tarantulas,  snakes  (many  varieties  of  rattle- 
snakes) in  the  south;  there  and  elsewhere  beaver,  bison, 
panthers,  bears,  wolves,  deer,  elk,  mountain  sheep,  and  small 
game  of  various  kinds,  all  adjusted  to  altitude  or  latitude. 
Bears  were  particularly  numerous.  The  bison  (buffalo)  roamed 
the  east  in  countless  numbers,  crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  pushing  westward  to  the  Pecos,  to  Green  River,  and  to 


<  pi 

>> 

0. 


12  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

the  Columbia.  As  a  wild  animal  the  bison  now  is  extinct, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  the  enormous  herds  that  so  short 
a  time  ago  at  will  traversed  the  face  of  the  wilderness.  The 
beaver  existed  in  vast  numbers  also,  and  this  fact  was  the  first 
I  incentive  to  exploration  of  the  immense  tract  by  Americans. 
Deer  and  antelope  grazed  everywhere  and  scarcely  a  day  could 
pass  without  the  traveller  sighting  some  of  these  animals.  All 
furnished  subsistence  to  the  man  who  was  there,  the  Amerind. 
Because  this  person  was  not  a  European  he  has  often  been 
regarded  as  hardly  worth  consideration,  but  he  was  a  good 
specimen  of  mankind  in  the  hunter  state.  Physically  and 
mentally  he  had  few  superiors.  He  knew  the  country  as  well 
as  we  know  it  to-day.  He  knew  every  pass  in  the  mountains, 
every  buffalo  trail.  Each  tribe  knew  its  own  land  limits,  as 
well  as  those  of  its  neighbours,  and  each  defended  its  home 
with  unsurpassed  daring  and  bravery. 

This  was  the  wilderness  when  the  hordes  of  Europe  de- 
scended upon  it  and  claimed  it  for  their  own.  Well  did  they 
fight  their  way  into  it,  and  equally  well  did  the  native  oppose 
the  invasion  and  fight  to  preserve  his  ancestral  home  in  all 
its  freedom  and  pristine  glory.  But  the  Europeans  were 
stronger  and  wrested  it  from  him,  from  the  animals,  and  from 
Nature;  yet  it  was  never  fully  theirs  till  the  sledge  drove 
home  that  last  spike  of  gold  that  pinned  the  East  and  the 
West  together  and  tacked  the  skirts  of  Europe  to  those  of 
Cathay. 


CHAPTER   II 

The  Intelligent  Beaver,  Chief  of  the  Rodents — A  Four-Footed  Engineer — A 
Builder  of  Houses,  Artificial  Canals,  Dams,  Ponds,  and  Lakes — Beaver 
Meadows — A  Masterful  Woodchopper — A  Tail  for  the  Epicure — Muskbogs — 
The  Fatal  Trap. 


SEVERAL  factors  combined  to  break  the  wilderness  to  the 
uses  of  the  Americans  into  whose  possession  it  eventually 
fell.  One  of  these,  and  it  was  one  of  the  most  important  in 
its  effect  on  primary  exploration,  was  the  presence  there  in 
vast  numbers  of  a  comparatively  small  and  singularly  intelli- 
gent animal  called  the  beaver,  belonging  to  the  order  Rodentia. 
While  not  of  great  size  it  was,  nevertheless,  with  one  exception, 
the  largest  of  its  kind,  weighing  thirty  or  forty  pounds  and  being 
about  three  and  one-half  feet  long.  In  colour  it  was  chestnut 
brown  and  was  endowed  with  a  rich,  thick  fur,  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  inch  long,  with  coarse  hair  scattered  through  it  about 
one  inch  longer.  It  so  happened  that  this  particular  quality 
of  fur  was  in  great  commercial  demand  in  Europe  for  the  mak- 
ing of  hats.  For  some  time  it  had  constituted  an  article  of 
profitable  export  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent,  as  the 
similar  animal  in  Europe  had  been  exterminated.  Finally  the 
supply  from  America  also  diminished  as  the  trappers  pursued 
their  merciless  task.  Then  followed  the  discovery  that  the 
great  wild  region  west  of  the  Mississippi  contained  beaver  in 
immense  numbers,  and  beaver  trapping  immediately  became 
the  principal  quest  of  many  bold  natures  eager  to  stake  their 
lives  in  a  tilt  with  Fortune,  just  as  others  later  played  a  differ- 
ent game  with  the  golden  gravels  of  California. 

13 


^'tPl^W^v- 


^t^.    %  : 


♦'I  - 


m.  ■ 


Vj'' 


%  n> 


The  Mountain  Part  of  the  Wilderness. 

Relief  map  by  E.  E.  Howell. 


14 


Rich  Returns 


15 


In  their  search  for  the  most  lucrative  beaver  grounds  they 
crossed  the  boundless  prairies,  and  stimulated  by  the  prospect 
of  riches  and  the  excitement  of  new  scenes  they  sought  the 
innermost  recesses  of  the  mountain  wilderness,  slaying  what 
opposed  their  way,  taking  beaver  by  thousands  and  tens  of 
thousands,  and  sending  pack  upon  pack  by  way  of  St.  Louis 
to  the  waiting  markets 
of  the  Old  World.  The 
early  returns  may  be  es- 
timated from  the  success 
of  one  enterprising  man 
who,  having  employed  a 
band  of  expert  trappers, 
came  out  of  the  far  re- 
gions on  one  occasion 
with  nearly  two  hundred 
packs,  each  worth  in  St. 
Louis  about  one  thou- 
sand dollars.  In  one 
period  of  two  and  one- 
half  years,  over  six  hun- 
dred thousand  beaver 
skins  were  sent  out  by 
one  of  the  great  compa- 
nies that  were  organised 
systematically  to  prose- 
cute the  fur  business  in 
North  America.'  Thus 
it  was  that  the  beaver 
became  responsible  for 
the  first  opening  of  the 
great  western  Unknown, 

and  in  order  fully  to  understand  the  interesting  story  of  human 
endeavour,  it  is  necessary  to  glance  at  the  characteristics  of 
this  remarkable  creature,  which  unwittingly  performed  such  a 
prominent    part  in    affairs   so    momentous   to   the   American 

^  For  an  admirable  account  of  the  fur  trade  see  The  American  Fur  Trade  of 
the  Far  West,  by  H.  M.  Chittenden. 


No  Place  for  Beaver. 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


i6  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Republic  and  to  the  world,  and  which  in  consequence  has  be- 
come almost  extinct.  By  it  was  the -trapper  and  trader  led 
from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Western  Ocean,  and  from  the  Gila 
River  to  and  beyond  the  bounds  of  Canada. 

With  so  great  regularity  was  the  daily  life  of  the  beaver 
ordered  that  the  hunters  in  their  admiration  ascribed  to  it 
mental  qualities  which  probably  it  did  not  actually  possess, 
yet  it  certainly  executed  well  defined  works  with  skill  and  pre- 
cision, and  performed  many  acts  which  might  easily  have  been 
the  result  of  mental  processes.'  A  house  builder  and  an 
engineer,  it  constructed  for  its  occupation  comfortable  lodges, 
it  excavated  canals  for  its  convenience,  and  formed  ponds  and 
lakes  of  considerable  extent  by  means  of  dams  made  of  trees, 
sticks,  mud,  and  stones.  Moreover,  the  trees  were  felled  by 
its  own  efforts,  and  cut  up  into  pieces  suitable  for  the  object 
desired.  The  mud  and  stones  were  then  combined  with  these 
pieces  with  a  dexterity  that  was  astonishing  and  that  will 
always  command  for  this  amphibious,  burrowing  creature  of 
the  genus  Castor  a  high  rank  in-  the  animal  world.  Its  paws 
were  supplied  with  long,  strong  claws,  the  hind  ones  having  an 
extra  claw  peculiar  to  the  beaver.  The  front  pair  were  small 
and  were  used  deftly  like  human  hands ;  and  the  animal  could 
walk  erect  on  its  hind  feet  carrying  small  stones  and  earth, 
pressed  against  the  throat,  for  house  or  dam  building;  it  could 
drag  poles  and  sticks  in  the  same  manner.  When  necessary  to 
move  larger  stones  they  pushed  them  along,  sometimes  using 
the  tail  also,  and  stones  of  five  or  six  pounds'  weight  were 
moved  in  this  way.  All  their  works  were  of  the  same  general 
character,  and  in  each  class  they  did  not  vary  their  methods, 
which  were  largely  dictated  by  surrounding  conditions.  Being 
amphibious,  they  naturally  lived  by  and  in  water.  Their  food 
being  tender  bark  and  small  twigs  of  trees,  they  were  forced  to 
gnaw  down  woody  growths  to  exist,  and  as  these  growths  near 
streams  usually  incline  toward  the  water  they  naturally  fell  into 
or  across  the  channel.  Accumulations  of  driftwood  and  of  the 
discarded  food  sticks  started  dams,  and  the  animal  aided  the 
natural  construction  by  adding  mud  and  more  sticks.     Thus, 

^  See  The  American  Beaver  and  his   Worki^  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan. 


Beaver  Life 


17 


perhaps,  its  habits  were  begun  in  the  remote  past  by  what  is 
called  instinct  rather  than  any  reasoning  quality,  yet  there  re- 
mains always  the  problem  as  to  where  instinct  stops  and  reason 
begins.  At  any  rate  there  appears  to  have  been  no  very  deep 
intellectuality  about  the  beaver,  notwithstanding  its  dexterity 
and  ingenuity.  It  was  moulded 
by  the  laws  of  its  life  exactly  as 
the  spider  is  when  it  spins  a  web; 
yet  in  the  case  of  the  beaver 
there  was  a  complexity  of  action 
that  seems  extraordinary,  although 
the  action  apparently  was  always 
that  which  beaver  after  beaver 
had  employed  for  an  immense 
period.  Where  a  stream  was  large 
and  deep  or  swift,  the  beaver 
could  not  build  a  dam,  nor  was  it 
necessary,  as  it  could  and  did  bur- 
row into  the  banks,  excavating 
a  chamber  above  the  water-level, 
and  the  primary  object  of  the 
dam  was  to  supply  deep  water  to 
cover  the  lodge  entrance.  Where 
waters  were  continually  swift  or 
turbulent  and  uncontrollable,  and 
especially  where  they  were  not 
bordered  by  an  abundance  of  cot- 
tonwoods,  willows,  yellow  birch, 
or  other  favourite  food  wood,  the 
beaver  was  absent.  For  these 
reasons  they  were  never  found  in 
deep  canyons.  The  trappers,  as 
soon  as  by  some  bitter  experience  they  discovered  this,  sought 
them  no  further  in  such  localities,  hence  while  these  men 
traversed  almost  every  other  foot  of  the  great  wilderness,  the 
huge  canyons,  particularly  those  of  the  Colorado  River  series, 
were  avoided.  They  continued,  therefore,  terra  incognita  long 
after  the  remainder  of  the  region  was    broken ;   till,  in  fact. 


Beaver  Country. 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers, 

U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


i8  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

the  remarkable  boat  journey  of  Major  Powell  in  1869  fathomed 
their  mysteries.  Thus  the  habits  of  the  beaver  controlled 
widely  separated  events. 

Where  brooks  or  creeks  were  small  with  the  proper  wood 
growths  beaver  were  abundant,  as  well  as  in  natural  lakes  and 
on  all  the  quieter  reaches  of  the  large  rivers.  Across  small 
streams  trees  were  felled,  and  with  the  aid  of  sticks,  mud,  and 
stones  the  beaver  laid  up  a  dam  to  back  up  the  water  and 
form  a  basin  wherein  could  be  built  their  lodges  with  entrances 
below  the  surface.  On  mountain  streams  these  dams  one 
above  another  often  transformed  them  for  long  distances  into 
a  series  of  pools  and  ponds  where  great  numbers  of  beaver 
made  their  homes.  In  such  places  a  trapper  would  reap  a 
speedy  reward,  more  particularly  as  there  was  no  thought  of 
sparing  any  of  the  creatures  for  the  future.  Often  fifty  or 
sixty  beaver  would  be  taken  in  a  single  night. 

According  to  Morgan,  dams  were  of  two  kinds,  the  "stick" 
and  the  "solid  bank."  The  former  was  made  by  a  combina- 
tion of  sticks  and  poles  on  the  lower  side,  while  the  upper  was 
built  of  sticks  and  earth.  The  sticks  were  laid  in  the  direction 
of  the  current  with  the  butts  up-stream,  and  not  across.  This 
was  probably  due  to  the  animal's  inability  to  lay  the  stick  in 
any  other  way,  the  current  itself  determining  the  beaver's  con- 
duct, though  it  is  possible  that  experience  had  taught  that  this 
was  the  best  method,  for  by  such  arrangement  the  water  was 
not  wholly  obstructed  and,  percolating  through  the  interstices, 
was  less  likely  to  break  away  the  structure.  The  other  form 
of  dam,  the  solid  bank,  was  merely  a  modification  of  the  stick 
dam  adapted  to  a  deeper  channel.  Large  quantities  of  earth 
and  stones  were  added  to  this  to  enable  it  to  withstand  the 
greater  force  of  water,  and  this  seenis  to  indicate  some  degree 
of  contemplation  on  the  part  of  the  builder;  yet  the  result  was 
natural,  as  the  animal,  having  placed  earth  on  one  form  of  dam, 
would  go  on  placing  earth  on  the  same  form  in  deeper  water  as 
a  matter  of  instinct.  But  there  was  one  touch  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  solid-bank  dam  which  more  than  any  other 
appeared  to  be  the  result  of  thought.  This  was  an  opening 
left  in  the   top    of   the  dam,   several    inches   lower   than  the 


of  ^ 


I  ^  i 


20 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


remainder,  and  three  or  four  feet  long,  as  a  spillway  for  surplus 
water.  In  the  stick  dam  no  spillway  was  provided  because  the 
surplus  was  allowed  to  flow  through  the  interstices,  so  that  the 
construction  of  this  feature  in  the  larger,  more  compact  dams 


Red  Canyon — Green  River. 

Where  Ashley  Went  for  Beaver  in  1825. 
Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 


seems  to  have  been  an  example  of  pure  invention  to  guard 
against  possible  disaster. 

All  dams  were  begun  at  the  surface  and  no  sticks  or  stakes 
were  driven  down  in  beginning  to  hold  in  place  the  sticks  that 
were  to  compose  the  bulk  of  the  structure.  Earth  and  stones, 
the  latter  of  as  much  as  six  pounds  each  in  weight,  were  brought 


House  Building  21 

to  the  spot  and  piled  on  the  sticks.  Trappers  asserted  that 
they  would  load  each  other's  backs  with  earth  and  stones  to  be 
carried  to  the  site,  but  this  statement  is  not  sufficiently  au- 
thenticated to  receive  much  confidence.  In  form  all  dams 
were  curved,  up  stream  in  small  dams  and  down  in  the  larger. 
This  was  doubtless  due  to  the  current,  which  in  small  streams, 
obstructed  easily  in  the  centre,  would  become  stronger  on  the 
sides  and  push  the  sticks  down,  while  the  reverse  would  be  the 
case  in  large  streams.  Ordinarily  the  dams  would  support  a 
man's  weight.  They  seemed  like  masses  of  driftwood  under 
the  foot.  The  older  they  were,  the  more  compact.  Within 
the  ponds,  formed  by  these  remarkable  dams,  sometimes  cover- 
ing more  than  fifty  acres,  one  or  many  lodges  were  built  to 
furnish  shelter  and  protection  to  the  beaver  family.  These 
houses  were  dome-shaped  structures  composed  of  sticks  and 
mud,  the  dome  rising  above  the  water-level  between  four  or 
five  feet  and  extending  along  it  about  sixteen  feet.  The  top 
of  the  lodge  was  left  rather  loose,  but  below  it  was  compact 
with  earth.  This  gave  the  interior  sufficient  ventilation.  The 
floor,  which  was  about  two  inches  above  the  water-line,  was 
hard  and  clean  with,  in  summer  time,  fresh  cut  grass  around 
the  sides.  Being  so  near  the  level  the  inmates  could  tell,  by 
the  lowering  of  the  surface,  whether  the  dam  had  a  break  in  it, 
in  which  case  they  would  sally  forth  to  make  repairs.  Trap- 
pers took  advantage  of  this  trait,  breaking  the  dam  and  setting 
traps  in  the  break.  The  interiors  were  about  two  yards  in 
diameter  and  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  in  height,  the  roof  above 
being  about  three  feet  in  thickness,  while  the  sides  were  four  or 
five.  There  were  several  kinds  of  entrances,  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
long,  but  one  was  always  straight  with  an  inclined  floor,  to  per- 
mit food  sticks  to  be  taken  into  the  house  and  out  again  when 
the  bark  on  them  had  been  consumed.  Then  the  sticks  were 
used  in  construction  work.  Other  entrances  were  more  abrupt 
and  full  of  purves.  The  winter  pile  of  food  sticks  was  sunk 
alongside  the  house  where  it  was  easily  accessible  under  the 
ice.  No  animal  could  successfully  attack  one  of  these  lodges, 
so  that  the  family  within  it  was  perfectly  safe,  but  men  with 
axes  could  force  an  entrance  from  above. 


f "  ' :' 

,  ^  ../.^;;7;... 

-  -k;2^^'  ■ 

'■\  ^.,.--  /Jrf.'>i                                                                              .   ;- 

.;      '               vv   ■        //  o  /// /Jf/'//i  o/'iVft/'r 

( 

1    ', •  /z  If/,//' 

.! 

4 

/ 

t: 

■-■.. 

1  ^ 

i 

f 

->: 

\ 

\ 

':  ■''  /y  /Jrf/A  ofltftfi'i- 

Xatural  iV»mi                             — — . — ^^^^ ^^^ 

Beaver  Canal. 

From  Morgan's  American  Beaver 


24  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

In  low  ground  the  dams  backing  the  water  around  trees 
killed  them  and  in  course  of  time  they  would  disappear,  leav- 
ing in  their  place  an  open,  boggy  space  covered  with  a  growth 
of  rank  vegetation.  These  were  called  by  the  hunters  "beaver 
meadows.  '  The  "beaver  canals"  were  cut  through  marshy 
places  and  were  sometimes  prominent  features  of  the  local 
landscape,  extending  four  or  five  hundred  feet  in  length,  and 
hav^ing  a  breadth  of  three  feet,  with  a  depth  of  fifteen  to  thirty 
inches. 

When  in  the  water  the  beaver  was  far  more  graceful  and 
active  than  when  on  land,  swimming  powerfully  by  means  of 
its  large,  strong,  webbed  hind  feet,  aided,  when  speed  was  de- 
sired, by  the  broad,  flat  tail  used  like  the  blade  of  a  sculling  oar, 
which,  indeed,  it  much  resembled,  being  ten  inches  long  by 
five  wide,  and  smooth,  hard,  and  scaly,  and  entirely  devoid  of 
the  soft  fur  which  covered  the  body.  Besides  this  use  in 
swimming,  the  tail  served  as  a  prop  when  the  animal  desired  to 
sit  up  on  land,  and  also  as  a  sort  of  trowel  for  beating  down 
the  mud-mortar  used  in  dam  building.  At  night  it  was  also 
struck  sharply  on  the  surface  of  the  water  as  a  signal  of  alarm, 
giving  a  report  which  sounded,  in  the  stillness,  like  a  pistol 
shot  and  could  be  heard  for  a  long  distance.  In  regions  fre- 
quented by  man,  or  where  in  any  way  likely  to  be  disturbed, 
the  beaver  was  nocturnal  and  did  most  of  its  work  during  the 
dark  hours,  but  where  unmolested  it  spent  much  time  out  in 
the  broad  daylight.  I  saw  large  numbers  swimming  about  in 
daytime  when  on  Green  River  in  1871,  in  Wonsits  Valley, 
where  white  men  had  rarely  passed,  and  they  gave  no  indica- 
tion of  special  alarm  at  sight  of  us.  Perhaps  they  regarded 
our  boats  as  nothing  more  than  drifting  logs,  just  as  the  seal 
of  Alaska  is  deceived  by  the  trick  the  natives  there  have  of 
covering  themselves  and  their  canoes  with  white  cloth  to  re- 
semble floating  ice.  At  one  point  where  we  were  in  camp  a 
whole  day  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  a  colony  actively 
engaged  in  their  various  labours  in  the  sunlight  of  the  river 
bank,  they  apparently  did  not  notice  our  presence,  and  even  a 
rifle  ball  sent  among  them  did  not  seem  to  derange  their 
equanimity.     In  this  locality  the  banks  were  full  of  burrows. 


Beaver-tail  Soup  25 

and  as  we  passed  along  in  our  boats  we  could  see  the  beaver 
swimming  around  in  every  direction.  .We  shot  at  several,  but 
as  they  immediately  sink  to  the  bottom  when  killed,  the  gun  is 
not  successful  in  taking  them,  except  in  very  shallow  streams. 
We  would  have  failed  altogether  albeit  we  made  no  special 
effort,  had  not  one  of  the  boats  been  able  to  head  off  a  large 
fellow  that  was  wounded,  just  as  he  arrived  at  the  opening  of 
his  burrow,  which  happened,  at  that  stage  of  river,  to  be  a 
little  above  the  water-level.  A  moment  more  and  the  animal 
would  have  been  safe  from  us,  but  though  the  bottom  was  in- 
visible on  account  of  the  turbidity  of  the  river,  one  of  our  men 
quickly  took  the  plunge  and  grasped  the  beaver  from  behind 
firmly  around  the  middle  at  the  moment  when  its  head  was 
almost  against  the  steep  high  bank.  The  depth  was  no  more 
than  about  three  feet,  and  though  the  beating  of  the  heavy  tail, 
and  the  fierce  struggles,  made  it  anything  but  easy,  the  beaver 
was  thrown  into  the  boat,  where  a  blow  from  an  oar  finished 
him.  The  captor,  drenched  and  covered  with  mud,  climbed 
triumphantly  on  board.  Some  of  the  meat  was  cooked  and 
suggested  to  me  beef  in  flavour,  though  it  was  rather  tough 
and  unappetising.  The  tail  makes  a  soup  which  is  the  delight 
of  the  epicure,  or  was,  when  beaver  tails  were  procurable,  but 
somehow  that  which  our  cook  concocted  did  not  strike  our 
palates  favourably  and  we  abandoned  it  for  the  regulation 
bacon  and  beans.  Beaver  meat  was  often  the  only  food  the 
trapper  and  frontiersman  could  obtain,  and  they  considered  it 
quite  a  good  article  of  diet.  The  one  we  tested  was  doubtless 
too  old  a  specimen,  and  we  had  no  opportunity  to  secure  an- 
other, for  we  passed  on  into  the  great  Canyon  of  Desolation 
and  saw  beaver  no  more. 

When  at  work  cutting  down  a  tree  they  stood  on  their  hind 
legs,  supported  also  by  the  tail,  two  working  at  one  time  on 
the  same  tree.  They  began  eight  or  ten  inches  above  the  base 
and  cut  round  and  round,  making  each  successive  cut  wider 
and  deeper,  the  chips  thrown  off  being  some  three  inches  in 
length  by  one  and  one-half  wide,  and  one-quarter  thick,  each 
showing  the  sharp,  clean  strokes  of  the  teeth,  and  resembling 
chips  made  with  an  axe.     As  the  trees  selected  were  always 


Muskbogs  27 

soft  wood,  they  were  easily  gnawed  while  green.  A  tree  of 
considerable  size  would  be  readily  felled  in  two  or  three  nights. 
Often  they  worked  in  pairs  at  a  number  of  trees  at  one  time, 
and  nineteen  falls,  says  Morgan,  have  been  counted  in  a  single 
night  between  the  hours  of  seven  and  twelve.  Cottonwoods 
twenty-four  inches  in  diameter  were  brought  down,  though 
the  more  ordinary  size  was  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches.  Father 
de  Smet  saw  a  stump  that  was  thirty  inches  in  diameter. 

At  first  glance  a  beaver  stump  looks  almost  as  if  it  might 
have  been  cut  by  an  axe  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced 
chopper.  Pine  trees  were  sometimes  cut  down,  but  the  boughs 
were  not  used  for  food.  Food  branches  were  cut  up  into 
lengths  of  one  to  two  feet,  for  convenience  in  handling  and 
storing.  Sometimes  trees  that  fell  with  their  tops  in  the  deep 
water  were  allowed  to  remain  this  way  till  winter,  when  the 
branches  were  cut  off  under  the  ice.  As  the  beaver  was  able 
to  stay  below  the  surface  comfortably  from  five  to  ten  minutes, 
he  could  accomplish  his  work  there  with  ease.  Both  sexes 
possessed  in  two  glands  of  the  groin  a  musky  secretion  called 
castoreiim,  which  was  used  in  medicine  and  also  as  a  bait  for 
the  animal  itself.  When  at  play  they  would  void  some  of  this 
musk  upon  the  ground,  and  their  favourite  playgrounds  were 
consequently  called  by  the  trappers  "muskbogs." 

Hunters  sometimes  found  trees  standing  near  a  stream  that 
were  partly  cut,  and  they  observed  that  in  these  cases  the  trees 
would  not  have  fallen  into  the  water,  from  which  they  inferred 
that  cutting  these  trees  had  been  started  by  young,  inexperi- 
enced beavers  who  had  finally  been  stopped  in  the  useless 
labour  by  their  wise  elders.  Bradbury,  the  English  naturalist 
who  was  in  the  West  with  Wilson  Price  Hunt  in  1809,  thought 
he  found  some  substantiation  of  this  theory  in  trees  he  care- 
fully examined — at  least,  none  of  these  trees  would  have  fallen 
across  the  neighbouring  streams.  Inasmuch  as  these  animals, 
however,  were  in  constant  need  of  food  branches,  there  would 
seem  to  have  been  no  good  reason  for  preventing  the  young 
beaver  from  completing  the  cutting  of  any  tree  no  matter 
where  it  might  drop.  That  the  beaver  had  gone  into  the  study 
of  forestry  and  was  endeavouring  to  preserve  the  woods  is  not 


28  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

likely,  nor  is  it  probable  that  the  time  of  the  youthful  beaver 
was  valuable.  If  all  stumps  in  a  given  locality  had  been  ex- 
amined, doubtless  it  would  have  been  found  that  a  considerable 
number  of  trees  had  not  fallen  across  the  stream  or  even  in  its 
direction.  A  more  probable  explanation  of  these  half-cut  trees 
would  be  that  from  time  to  time  some  of  those  engaged  in 
gnawing  were  interrupted  during  the  operation,  perhaps  killed, 
and  prevented  from  resuming,  and  that  the  rest,  having  their 
attention  engaged  on  other  trees  or  their  branches,  were  not 
impelled  to  take  up  the  work.  The  tree  being  girdled  soon 
died.  Then  the  fibre  of  the  wood  growing  dry  and  hard,  the 
tree  would  be  avoided,  because  there  were  always  plenty  of 
fresh,  juicy  ones  to  cut.  The  tops  of  the  old  dead  trees  would 
also  be  of  no  use  for  food.  So  while  the  young  may  have  been 
regularly  educated  as  the  trappers  believed,  this  particular 
illustration  of  wise  guidance  does  not  appear  convincing.  It 
was  also  believed  that  an  old  beaver  which  had  once  escaped 
a  trap  could  not  again  easily  be  caught,  for  the  reason  that 
thereafter  it  carried  a  stick  in  its  mouth  with  which  to  test 
suspicious  places  and  spring  any  trap  that  might  be  in  its  way. 

Nevertheless  the  trap  was  fatal  to  these  industrious  and  in- 
genious animals,  and  by  the  year  1835  they  had  been  reduced 
in  numbers  to  such  a  degree  that  they  were  no  longer  the  chief 
lure  and  gain  of  the  fur  hunter.  The  native,  before  the  open- 
ing of  the  European  market,  not  having  much  use  for  such 
small  skins  and  preferring  the  meat  of  other  game  for  food,  the 
beaver  for  ages  had  been  practically  unmolested.  But  the 
footsteps  of  the  American  trapper  sounded  his  death  knell. 
At  the  same  time  they  sounded  the  same  knell  for  every  living 
thing  in  the  whole  vast  wilderness,  and  now,  a  century  after, 
not  only  is  it  next  to  impossible  to  find  a  beaver  colony  in 
that  immense  array  of  mountain  and  plain,  but  all  wild  animals 
have  become  more  or  less  of  a  curiosity,  only  preserved  from 
absolute  extermination  by  the  most  rigorous  game  laws.  Kill- 
ing for  fun  is  even  more  destructive  than  killing  for  profit. 

The  principal  contrivance  employed  in  taking  beaver  was 
the  common  steel  trap,  a  couple  of  jaws  so  arranged  that  they 
could  be  spread  and  set  on  a  trigger  which  was  connected  with 


The  Trap 


29 


Beaver  Trap. 


a  treadle  in  the  centre.  When  the  animal  stepped  on  this 
treadle,  the  powerful  jaws  were  freed  and  were  brought  fiercely 
together  by  a  spring,  clamping  the  leg  of  the  victim  securely. 
The  trap  being  fastened  to  a  'strong  chain  and  this  to  a  stake, 
the  captive  could  not  escape,  unless  it  gnawed  its  own  leg  off, 
and  it  is  said 
beaver  some- 
times did  this. 
The  trap  was  set 
in  the  line  of  a 
runway  or  trail 
or  near  the  en- 
trance to  a  bur- 
row, with  a  stick 
leaning    over    it 

on  the  extremity  of  which  was  the  bait,  a  small  quantity  of 
castoreum,  of  gum  camphor,  oil  of  juniper,  cinnamon,  or 
cloves.  The  last  two  were  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  made  into 
a  paste.  In  reaching  for  the  bait,  the  beaver  stepped  on  the 
treadle  of  the  trap.  The  hunter  made  his  rounds  regularly 
to  gather  in  the  pelts  of  the  captives,  resetting  the  traps  for 
another  catch  if  the  locality  was  promising,  or,  if  the  contrary, 
taking  them  up  and  pushing  on  in  search  of  better  ground. 
In  the  very  beginning  those  first  in  a  rich  spot  of  course 
reaped  the  best  harvest,  and  it  was  the  desire  to  obtain  large 
and  quick  returns  that  induced  trappers  constantly  to  enter 
farther  and  farther  into  the  unfathomed  places.  The  move 
was  not  always  a  wise  one.  Frequently  they  left  compara- 
tively good  ground  and  came  to  that  which  was  lean,  or  per- 
haps entirely  devoid  of  the  animal  sought. 

Sometimes  the  trap  was  set  so  that  the  ring  attached  to  the 
end  of  the  chain,  as  soon  as  the  captive  dived,  would  slide 
down  to  the  small  end  of  a  pole  planted  in  the  water,  pre- 
venting the  ascent  of  the  beaver  and  consequently  drowning 
it.  At  the  lodge,  rows  of  strong  stakes  were  driven  in  such  a 
way  as  to  form  alleys  leading  to  the  entrances  through  which 
the  members  of  the  family  would  have  to  pass  to  reach  the 
house,  the  trap  being  cunningly  concealed  on  the  bottom.     In 


Copyright,  iqoi,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

The  Beaver. 
30 


Beaver  vs.  Eagle  Emblem  31 

winter,  as  it  was  easy  to  discover  the  lodges  because  the  snow 
was  melted  away  from  above  by  the  rfsing  warm  air,  the  tops 
were  chopped  in,  and  the  beaver  taken  in  this  way.  The 
store  of  winter  food  sticks  being  placed  in  a  pile  beside  the 
lodge,  the  trappers  often  staked  around  it  to  compel  the  beaver 
to  enter  for  food  at  points  where  traps  were  set.  When  it  was 
driven  to  its  bank  burrows,  the  entrances  were  closed  and  then 
the  occupants  were  dug  out  from  above.  The  setting  of  steel 
traps,  however,  and  visiting  them  at  regular  intervals  was  the 
easiest  and  most  profitable  method,  for  one  man  could  take 
care  of  fifty  traps  or  more,  without  great  difficulty.  One  pe- 
culiarity of  the  animal  was  of  great  service  to  its  pursuers, — 
it  never  stepped  backwards.  Altogether  the  poor  creature  was 
an  easy  prey  to  the  keen  hunter,  and  the  capture  of  it  amounted 
to  wholesale  slaughter. 

In  disposition  the  beaver  was  gentle  and  shy.  When  caught 
very  young,  they  became  perfectly  tame  and  contented.  Native 
women  sometimes  nursed  young  captives  as  they  would  a  child, 
till,  in  a  few  weeks,  they  were  old  enough  to  eat  bark,  when 
they  would  wean  themselves.  Their  cry  resembled  that  of  a 
human  infant,  and  their  affectionate  natures  made  them  attract- 
ive and  satisfactory  pets.  Full  growth  was  attained  at  two 
and  one-half  years,  and  they  died  of  old  age  at  about  fifteen. 
A  beaver  family  consisted  of  the  two  parents  and  the  several 
offspring  under  two  years  of  age,  all  living  in  one  lodge  or 
burrow.  Occasionally  a  male  refused  to  pair,  and  then  after 
the  second  season  he  was  driven  from  the  colony  and  became 
an  outcast.  Their  interesting  social  organisation  and  general 
sagacity  placed  them  in  the  very  top  rank  among  animals. 

This  small  creature,  then,  that  offered  its  life  as  a  bait  to 
entice  the  white  man  into  the  depths  of  the  wilderness,  was  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  on  the  continent,  and  its  likeness,  as  the 
emblem  of  the  American  Republic,  would  be  far  more  appro- 
priate than  the  carrion  eagle,  which  has  little  to  commend  it, 
as  compared  with  the  beaver,  the  model  of  gentleness,  industry, 
ingenuity,  and  painstaking  skill,  and  which  formed  a  stepping- 
stone  to  the  power  and  greatness  of  the  Union  of  States  now 
spreading  from  ocean  to  ocean. 


-^o/^ 


CHAPTER   III 

A  Monarch  of  the  Plains — The  Hunchback  Cows  of  Cibola — A  Boon  to  the 
Frontiersman — Wide  Range  of  the  Bison — Marrow  Bones  for  the  Epicure^ — 
Washington  Irving  a  Buffalo  Hunter — The  Rushing  Run  of  the  Bison  Herd 
— The  Sacred  White  Buffalo  Cow  Skin — A  Calf  with  a  Bull  Head — Wolves 
and  White  Bears. 


ANOTHER  denizen  of  the  wilderness  that  performed  an 
important  part  in  its  preparation  for  occupation  by  the 
white  race  was  the  buffalo  or  Bison  Amci'icanus,  a  monarch  of 
the  plains,  huge  and  fierce  in  appearance;  a  monarch  with  the 
mien  of  a  lion  and  the  resistance  of  a  sheep ;  an  animal  quite 
the  opposite  of  the  interesting  beaver  in  almost  every  particular 
but  numbers.  In  this  respect,  however,  it  vied  with  its  smaller 
associate,  roaming  by  millions  and  millions  up  and  down  across 
the  limitless  prairie-ocean,  apparently  as  inexhaustible  as  the 
vagrant  breezes  blowing  one  day  here  and  one  day  there.  But 
the  breezes  still  waft  above  the  billowy  surface,  while  the  bison 
has  vanished  like  a  dream.  The  farm,  the  ranch,  the  town, 
and  the  railway  now  claim  his  vast  grazing  grounds.  Were  it 
not  for  a  few  specimens  preserved  in  private  herds  and  zoo- 
logical gardens,  this  strange  creature  would  be  as  unfamiliar  to 
us  in  the  life  as  are  the  Dinosaurs  of  the  Jurassic  plains. 

They  were  the  "hunchback  cows  "  which  Alvar  Nuftez  Ca- 
beza  de  Vaca  first  accurately  described  to  the  European  world, 
although  it  is  said  that  Montezuma  had  one  captive  in  his  col- 

32 


34  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

lection  of  animals  at  the  time  Cortez  pillaged  the  Aztec  capital. 
They  were  later  called  "cattle  or  cows  of  Cibola  "  (and  Sibolo)  ^ 
by  the  Spaniards,  perhaps  because  the  inhabitants  of  the  first 
group  of  native  villages  of  New  Mexico  encountered  by  Coro- 
nado  were  supplied  with  buffalo  robes  and  were  in  the  habit  of 
going  to  hunt  the  animals  on  the  plains  of  the  river  Pecos, 
where  at  that  time  they  were  abundant.  The  name  passed 
into  common  use  and  to-day,  although  there  is  the  correct 
word  Bisonte  the  American  bison  is  generally  known  in  Spanish 
as  Cibolo.  In  his  celebrated  traverse  of  the  Texas  and  Kansas 
prairies  in  1540  Coronado  saw  immense  herds  that  roamed 
there.  The  buffalo  range  was  great,  especially  in  a  north  and 
south  direction,  its  southernmost  limit  having  been  in  north- 
eastern Mexico  a  little  below  the  lower  end  of  Texas,  while  its 
northernmost  was  the  upper  shores  of  Great  Slave  Lake.  It 
seems,  however,  that  it  did  not  cover  this  range  in  latitude  at 
one  tiftie,  so  that  in  Coronado's  day  the  northern  limit  was 
doubtless  considerably  below  Great  Slave  Lake.  The  buffalo 
was  not  migratory  in  the  sense  that  herds  from  the  extreme 
north  traversed  the  entire  range  and  occupied  a  place  on  the 
southern  edge,  but  it  was  migratory  as  a  whole,  swinging  back 
and  forth  from  north  to  south  and  south  to  north  like  a  huge 
pendulum,  the  various  sub-herds  always  retaining  practically 
the  same  relative  position  to  the  complete  mass.  It  appears 
also  that  in  this  annual  oscillation  with  the  seasons  it  gradually 
retired  from  the  extreme  southern  limit  and  encroached  beyond 
its  northern  limit,  till  the  position  at  the  north  mentioned  was 
arrived  at.  This  is  indicated  by  the  statement  of  an  Amerind 
of  the  Athabasca  country,  who  in  explaining  his  age  to  Mac- 
kenzie, said  that  "he  remembered  the  opposite  hills  and  plains 
now  interspersed  with  groves  of  poplars,  when  they  were 
covered  with  moss,  and  without  any  animal  inhabitant  but  the 
reindeer.     By  degrees,  he  said,  the  face  of  the  country  changed 

^  Gatschet  says  there  is  a  word  in  the  dialect  of  Isleta,  N.  M.,  Sibtilodd,  meaning 
buffalo,  and  it  is  possible  that  a  native  name  for  the  animal  has  been  mixed  up 
with  the  name  of  the  first  group  of  towns,  written  often  Cevola.  For  a  descrip- 
tion of'thejje  towns,  etc.,  see  Coronado,  hy  George  Parker  Winship,  A.  S.  Barnes. 
&  Co.  edition. 


The  Buffalo  Range  35 

to  its  present  appearance,  when  the  elk  came  from  the  east  and 
was  followed  by  the  buffalo;  the  rerndeer  then  retired  to 
a  considerable  distance."'  It  is  therefore  quite 
probable  that,  had  not  the  European  arrived  to  interfere,  the 
buffalo  eventually  would  have  gone  farther  north  and  would 
have  spread  over  Alaska.  It  was  perfectly  at  home  in  the  cold 
northland  so  long  as  the  summers  permitted  grass  and  herbage 
to  mature.  The  Saskatchewan  country  was  full  of  them  all 
winter,  though  they  were  forced  to  paw  away  the  snow  to 
reach  the  grass.  The  range  east  and  west  was  also  extensive, 
though  this  was  not  the  direction  of  its  annual  movement.  Its 
eastern  limit  was  the  extent  of  the  Mississippi  valley  north  of 
the  Tennessee ;  and  possibly  as  far  as  Lake  Champlain.  While 
seemingly  not  as  numerous  in  this  eastern  part  of  its  range  as 
farther  west,  yet  there  were  large  numbers,  and  the  hunters 
of  the  early  days  of  European  settlement  often  killed  them. 
Albert  Gallatin  states  that  while  in  western  Virginia  in  1784 
he  subsisted  chiefly  on  buffalo  meat.  The  city  of  Buffalo 
takes  its  name  from  this  animal,  which  formerly  fed  on  its  site. 
That  they  were  abundant  in  this  eastern  region  long  before 
Gallatin's  time  is  established  by  the  large  quantities  of  their 
bones  found  around  the  salt  licks  of  the  Ohio  valley.  At  Big 
Bone  Lick,  Kentucky,  these  accumulations  are  so  great  as  to 
indicate,  beyond  question,  a  very  remote  date  for  the  begin- 
ning of  the  range  of  the  buffalo  in  this  region.  Beneath  them 
the  bones  of  the  mastodon  are  discovered,  ^ 

It  is  strange  that  no  bison  remains  have  thus  far  been  found 
in  the  ancient  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  valley;  nor  are  there 
any  images  of  them  on  Moundbuilder  pipes.  It  is  also  strange 
that,  despite  the  abundance  of  buffalo  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  West,  pictures  of  it  made  by  the  natives  should  be 
so  rare.     The  Sioux  lived  with  and  on   the  bison,  yet  they 


^  Voyages  through  North  America^  Alexander  Mackenzie,  vol.  ii.,  p.  27,  Barnes 
edition. 

^  An  excellent  monograph  on  the  American  Bison,  by  J.  A.  Allen,  edited  by 
Dr.  Elliott  Coues,  is  contained  in  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  of  Col- 
orado and  Adjacent  Territories ^  by  F.  V.  Hayden,  for  1875.  See  also  worlcs  of  W. 
T.  Hornadav. 


36  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

seldom  drew  it,  while  their  robes  are  covered  with  drawings  of 
horses  and  other  animals. 

On  the  west  the  limit  of  the  range,  at  least  north  of  about 
latitude  41°,  up  to  the  end  of  the  first  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century  seems  to  have  been  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Lewis  and 
Clark,  on  their  great  journey  of  1804-06,  make  no  mention  of 
the  buffalo  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  mountains,  hence  it  is 
probable  that  few  had  crossed  there  at  that  time.  This 
would  imply  that  it  was  the  advance  of  civilisation  which 
impelled  the  buffalo  in  numbers  finally  to  seek  passes  over 
the  Backbone  and  spread  across  the  upper  valley  of  Green 
River,  of  Bear  River,  and  of  the  Columbia.  The  possibility 
always  remains  that  there  may  have  been  other  causes  at 
work,  perhaps  climatic,  to  induce  or  assist  this  movement, 
and  it  is  also  possible  that  the  animal  may  have  crossed 
earlier,  and  have  temporarily  refrained  from  migrating  in 
that  direction,  perchance  on  account  of  extra  deep  snow  or 
some  such  natural  interference,  although  the  usual  snow  did 
not  prevent  their  crossing  in  dead  of  winter.  Escalante's 
party  in  1776  found  abundant  signs  of  buffalo  on  White 
River,  near  the  Green,  and  killed  one  there.  They  named  a 
canyon  Arroyo  del  Cibolo  because  of  the  many  buffalo  trails 
in  it. 

But  the  modern  Pai  Utes  apparently  had  no  knowledge  of 
this  animal,  so  that  if  it  ever  was  found  in  any  numbers  in 
southern  Utah,  the  period  of  occupation  must  have  been  re- 
mote. Dr.  Coues  believed  that  it  ranged  at  one  time  in  Ari- 
zona, though  he  could  not  recall  the  ground  for  this  belief, 
simply  remembering  that  it  appeared  to  him  sufificient  at  the 
time.  The  only  indication  that  I  know  of,  of  the  former 
presence  of  the  buffalo  in  southern  Utah  is  a  rock  picture 
found  on  the  walls  of  Kanab  Canyon  (see  page  37),  some 
eight  miles  north  of  latitude  37°  and  about  two  west  of  longi- 
tude 112°  30'.  This  drawing  would  suggest  that  some  natives 
captured  a  buffalo  not  far  from  the  spot,  though  it  might  have 
been  the  record  of  a  hunt  at  some  other  point.  Buffalo  would 
not  have  been  likely  to  cross  the  vast  depths  of  the  Grand 
Canyon  to  the  southward,  hence  they  could  have  arrived  at 


A  Rock  Picture 


37 


this  place  easily  only  by  way  of  the  Sevier  River,  the  Escalante 
Desert,  or  by  turning  the  western  end  of  the  Grand  Canyon. 
At  Gunnison  on  Sevier  River  a  buffalo  skull  was  found  in  a 
canyon  ten  feet  below  the  surface.  It  is  more  probable  that 
they  would  come  from  the  north,  yet  if  they  did  not  cross  the 
mountains  there  till  1810,  a  new  difficulty  is  met  with,  for  the 
present  Pai  Utes  seem  not  to  have  made  any  rock  pictures. 
These  were  done  by  the  pottery-making,  house-building  Am- 
erinds, who,  as  far  as  can  be  determined,  had  vanished  from 
the  region  long  before  18 10. 

I  do  not  remember  any  reference  to  buffalo  on  Espejo's 
trip  to  Zufii  and  west  in  1 583,  nor  on  the  journey  Juan  de  Ofiate 


Picture  of  Buffalo  on  Cliff  Wall,  Southern  Utah. 

Pecked  Drawing  Copied  by  B.  L.  Young. 


made  across  Arizona  and  back  in  1604-05  ;  it  is  likely  that  if 
this  animal  ranged  there  it  was  before  the  time  of  Coronado. 
The  south-western  limit  at  that  period  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  mountain  range  west  of  the  Rio  Pecos.  North  of 
latitude  57°  they  never  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
1820,  according  to  Long,  they  had  not  yet  entirely  crossed  in 
the  central  portion,  that  is  to  Green  River  and  the  Columbia, 
yet  in  1824  they  were  ranging  the  Green,  Columbia,  and  Bear 
River  valleys  in  vast  numbers.  Up  to  1823  they  existed  in 
great  herds  in  the  new  State  of  Missouri,  and  their  crossing  to 
the  Pacific  slope  thus  appears  about  coincident  with  their  re- 
tiring from  this  eastern  ground.     In  their  western  range  they 


38  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

extended  as  far  as  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Oregon,  and  even  to 
the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  the  region  farther  south. 
Fossil  remains  have  been  found,  according  to  Coues,  within 
the  limits  of  its  range,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  There 
were  two  kinds  of  buffalo  in  the  opinion  of  the  frontiersmen, 
the  wood  buffalo  and  the  prairie  type.  Apparently  there  was 
not  sufficient  differentiation  in  these  to  warrant  the  separation. 
They  were  practically  the  same,  the  variation  being  merely  one 
of  habitat,  and  individual  change,  like  the  occasional  develop- 
ment of  an  extra  rib.  The  buffalo  inhabiting  the  woods 
usually  grew  to  a  larger  size  than  that  of  the  plains,  but  this 
was  probably  the  result  of  a  less  active  life  and  more  abundant 
food.  All  buffalo  at  maturity  were  large  animals,  the  male 
weighing  looo  to  1500  pounds  or  more,  and  the  female  from 
800  to  1200.  In  size  the  adult  male  measured  about  9  feet 
from  muzzle  to  root  of  tail,  and  13  feet  6  inches  to  end  of  tail 
including  the  hairs,  which  were  about  15  inches  long.  In 
similar  measurement  the  adult  female  was  about  6  feet  6  inches 
to  root  of  tail  and  9  feet  to  the  extreme  end,  the  hairs  being 
about  10  inches  long.  The  male  at  the  highest  part  was  5^  to 
6  feet  and  the  female  about  5  feet ;  at  the  hips  both  sexes  were 
around  4J  feet.  The  horns  of  the  male  were  short  and  very 
thick  at  the  base,  with  a  quick  taper  to  a  sharp  point.  Those 
of  the  female  were  smaller  at  the  base,  but  about  the  same  in 
length  and  curve  as  those  of  the  male.  In  winter  the  colour 
of  the  woolly  hair  was  a  blackish  brown,  but  it  became 
lighter  in  summer  and  so  varied  somewhat  with  season  and 
locality.  The  hair  was  moulted  in  early  spring  except  that  on 
the  shoulders,  which  with  age  became  tawny — a  yellowish 
brown. 

The  earliest  published  drawing  of  the  American  bison  is 
supposed  to  be  that  which  appeared  in  1558  in  Thevet's  book,' 
sixteen  years  after  the  return  to  Mexico  of  Coronado,  but  it 
would  seem  that  some  illustration  of  an  animal  that  was  con- 
sidered so  remarkable  must  have  been  printed  before  that. 
Since  then  it  has  been  drawn  and  painted  unnumbered  times. 
It  figured  largely,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in  Catlin's  celebrated 

^  Les  Singular itez  de  la  France  Antar clique. 


J2    U 


40  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

illustrations  of  aboriginal  life  in  the  Far  West,  and  forms  the 
subject  for  about  the  best  picture  Albert  Bierstadt  ever  painted, 
Buffalo  Hunting  on  Laramie  Plains.^ 

But  it  was  not  as  material  for  picture  making  that  the  bison 
became  of  greatest  value,  it  was  as  a  meat  supply  to  the  trap- 
per, the  trader,  and  the  traveller  generally  upon  the  bosom  of 
that  wide  expanse  of  rolling  prairie  that  so  resembled  the  great 
salt  ocean  itself.     As  Butler"  describes  it, 

*'the  unending  vision  of  sky  and  grass,  the  dim,  distant,  and  ever 
shifting  horizon;  the  ridges  that  seem  to  be  rolled  upon  one  another 
in  motionless  torpor;  the  effect  of  sunrise  and  sunset,  of  night  nar- 
rowing the  vision  to  nothing,  and  morning  only  expanding  it  to  a 
shapeless  blank,  .  .  .  and  above  all  the  sense  of  lonely,  unend- 
ing distance  which  comes  to  the  voyageii?'  when  day  after  day  has 
gone  by,  night  has  closed,  and  morning  dawned  upon  his  onward 
progress  under  the  same  ever-moving  horizon  of  grass  and  sky." 

No  wonder  the  moment  buffalo  were  first  sighted  by  the 
anxious  caravan,  a  joyful  cry  went  up,  equivalent,  as  Irving 
says,  to  the  cry  of,  "A  sail,  a  sail !  "  at  sea.  All  was  commotion 
on  the  instant,  and  everybody  prepared  for  the  hunt.  Thence- 
forward, as  long  as  buffalo  were  near,  hunger  held  no  terrors  on 
that  boundless  plain  that  now  our  limited  express  so  con- 
temptuously spurns  beneath  its  throbbing  steel,  as  the  ennuied 
lady  sits  wearisome  at  the  window  gazing  with  disdain  on  those 
blood-bathed  reaches  of  country,  so  full  of  thrilling  story  and 
history,  a  bill  of  fare  in  her  hand  that  would  have  driven  the 
old  voyageur  to  distraction. 

Yet  buffalo  meat  could  not  have  been  less  delicious  to  the 
appetite  of  the  plains  traveller.  It  not  only  furnished  food  for 
the  moment,  but  dried,  or  dried  and  pounded  and  mixed  with 
the  rendered  tallow,  sometimes  including  berries,  it  made/^;?/- 
mican,^  which  could  be  kept  a  long  time,  and  which  formed  the 
basis  of  the  supplies  for  long  expeditions  and  for  winter  con- 
sumption.    The  meat  from  old  bulls  was  often  tough,  but  that 

'  Owned  by  the  Buffalo  Fine  Arts  Academy. 

2  The  Wild  Northland,  Sir  William  Francis  Butler,  K.C.B. 

^  Pemmican,  from  the  Cree  language— //wwe,  meat,  and  kon^  fat. 


Marrow  Bones 


41 


from  a  fat  cow  was  always  delicious,  and  the  marrow !— well, 
that  was  a  dish  fit  to  set  before  a  king.  The  Hon.  Grantley 
F.  Berkley  '  of  England  was  not  exactly  a  king,  unless  we 
elevate  him  as  far  above  the  Americans  as  he  thought  himself 


Canyon  of  Lodore — Green  River. 

Canyons  of  this  Character  were  almost  Continuox's  from  a  few  Miles  below  the 

Union  Pacific  Railway  Crossing. 

Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

to  be,  but  he  appreciated  marrow  in  1859  when  he  honoured 
the  great  plains  by  his  presence. 


"  No  man  [he  exclaims]  can  guess  what  marrow  amounts  to  until 

he  has  been  to  the  Far  West.     .     .     .     The  bone  was  brought  to 

table  in  its  full  length,  and  they  had  some  way  of  hitting  it  with  an 

axe  which  opened  one  side  only,  like  the  lid  of  a  box.     The  bone 

*  TAe  English  Sportstnan  in  the  Western  Prairies, 


42  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

then,  when  this  lid  was  removed,  exposed  in  its  entire  length  a 
regular  white  roll  of  unbroken  marrow,  beautifully  done.  When 
hot,  as  the  lid  had  kept  it,  and  put  on  thin  toast,  it  was  perfection." 

Another  part  that  was  particularly  delicious  was  the  hump  or 
rather  the  hump-ribs;  and  so  too  was  the  tongue.  Still  an- 
other tidbit  was  the  meat  along  either  side  of  the  loin,  so  that 
altogether  living  was  high  on  the  rolling  prairie  as  long  as 
buffalo  held  out.  Frequently  the  traveller  became  so  pam- 
pered by  these  luxuries  that  he  spurned  all  but  the  daintiest 
parts  and  thought  nothing  of  killing  a  cow  simply  for  the  mar- 
row or  for  the  tongue. 

The  poor  beast  deserved  better  treatment  than  it  got ;  in- 
deed, the  only  treatment  was  a  dose  of  lead  on  sight,  even 
when  no  meat  was  needed.  The  Amerinds  often  killed  the 
bison  recklessly  before  the  arrival  of  the  European,  yet  the 
herds  would  have  resisted  all  such  inroads.  But  when  the  white 
man  came  he  quickly  gave  the  native  points  in  the  game  of 
useless  destruction.  The  buffalo  range  immediately  was  trans- 
formed into  a  vast  slaughter-house,  and  the  carcasses  were  left 
to  rot  and  dry  under  the  western  sun.  And  the  more  civilised 
the  hunter — that  is,  the  more  unaccustomed  to  the  frontier — 
the  greater  the  waste  of  bison  life  at  his  hands.  More  than  six- 
teen thousand  vjQ.re.  shot  for  sport  alone,  on  the  plains  of  Kansas 
and  Colorado,  in  1871.  The  sportsmen  killed  all  sizes  and 
ages,  pell-mell,  just  to  kill  and  to  ride  away  at  headlong 
speed  like  escaped  madmen,  never  stopping  a  moment  even 
for  the  tongues.  Everywhere  the  carcasses  of  wantonly  slain 
buffalo  in  disgusting  masses  of  putrefaction  were  lying  over 
hill  and  dale.'  They  enjoyed  the  bison's  terror  and  agony, 
and  with  the  improved  breech-loader  death  was  dealt  in  a 
steady  stream,  easily  and  at  little  cost.     It  was  grand  sport ! 

''  Some  of  our  bullets  are  telling;  you  can  hear  them  crack  on  his 
hide.  There  is  a  red  spot  now,  not  bigger  than  the  point  of  one's 
finger,  opposite  a  lung,  and  drops  of  blood  trickle  with  the  saliva 
from  his  jaws.     .     .     .     He  is  bleeding  internally.     .     .     .     Now 

'  Buffalo  Land,  W.  E.  Webb. 


Head  of  Bison  Buli. 

Specimen  Shot  by  Theodore   Roosevelt.   Dec.  17,  1883. 
(From  Roosevelt's  Huntimi  Trips  of  a  Ranchman.) 


43 


44  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

he  stands  sullen  glaring  at  us.  The  wounds  look  like  little  points  of 
red  paint,  put  deftly  on  his  shaggy  hide.  .  .  .  The  large  eyes 
roll  and  swell  with  pain  and  fury.  .  .  .  See  him  blow  the  blood 
from  his  nostrils.  The  drops  scatter  like  red-hot  shot  around  him, 
seeming  to  hiss  in  globules  of  fury,  as  they  spatter  upon  the  dry 
grass."  ' 

When  finally  the  railways  began  to  push  across  the  plains, 
passengers  would  amuse  themselves  by  shooting  buffalo  from 
the  windows.  The  animals  had  a  habit  of  trying  to  cross  the 
track  ahead  of  the  engine,  and  sometimes  would  rush  beside  the 
train  a  long  distance,  for  in  the  early  days  trains  had  to  run 
slowly,  thus  giving  passengers  the  opportunity.  If  the  train 
did  not  stop,  the  herd  would  perhaps  butt  up  against  it,  so  the 
engineers  learned  to  stand  still,  and,  with  due  respect,  wait  for 
the  bison  to  pass.  When  wounded,  they  became  dangerous, 
especially  the  vigorous  bulls,  and  the  novice  then  had  to  look 
sharp  for  his  own  life,  like  the  matador  in  the  bull-ring. 

The  advance  of  one  of  the  enormous  herds  was  a  terrific 
sight.  Great  clouds  of  dust  rolled  up,  there  was  bellowing 
and  bawling,  and  the  thunder  of  the  thousand  hoof-beats  on 
the  hard  ground.  The  herd  came  as  one  animal,  sweepi-ng 
everything  before  it  as  an  avalanche  descends  some  precipice 
in  the  Alps.  "Their  lion-like  fronts  and  dangling  beards — 
their  open  mouths  and  hanging  tongues — as  they  come  puffing 
like  a  locomotive  engine  at  every  bound  do  at  first  make  the 
blood  settle  a  little  heavy  about  the  heart."  Woe  to  the 
caravan  or  horseman  who  failed  to  evade  this  resistless  ap- 
proach !  The  forward  animals  were  borne  ahead  by  the  pres- 
sure from  behind,  and  the  mass  swept  on  like  some  tremendous 
flood.  Should  a  river  or  other  obstacle  come  in  the  way  there 
was  no  halt.  Whole  herds  were  sometimes  dashed  to  death 
over  some  precipice,  or  drowned  in  a  river  where  quicksand 
prevented  fording  or  swimming.  Four  thousand  once  crossed 
the  Platte  when  it  was  a  foot  or  two  deep  and  full  of  quick- 
sand. The  animals  in  the  lead  mired,  but  those  behind  pre- 
vented their  return,  and   rushing  on   over  the  ones  already 

■  Buffalo  Land,  p.  304. 


V  ^r^f 


Hunting  Methods 


45 


entangled  in  the  fatal  sands,  themselves  fell  in,  till  finally  the 
bed  of  the  stream,  nearly  half  a  mile  wide,  was  covered  with 
dead  and  dying  buffalo,  two  thousand,  at  least,  having  been 
killed  in  the  attempt  to  cross.  Gregg  ^  asserts  that  any  herd 
was  easily  turned  aside,  but  others  give  a  different  opinion, 
and  judging  from  all  the  data,  it  seems  that  Gregg's  experience 
in  this  particular  must  have  been  unusual. 

Hunting  was  done  by   several  methods;    first,    following 
along  the  outskirts  of  a  herd  on  a  trained  and  fleet  horse  and 


Buffalo  Chase. 

After  Catlin. 
From  Smithsonian  Report,  1885. 

*'cutting  out  "  an  animal  to  shoot ;  or,  by  "still"  hunting — 
that  is,  creeping  up  to  a  herd  unobserved  and  picking  animals 
off  while  feeding;  or  by  the  surround;  or  the  drive.  The 
natives  were  expert  in  all  methods.  In  the  surround  they 
closed  in  large  numbers  on  a  herd  and  at  a  given  signal  all  be- 
gan to  shoot.  They  used  the  bow  and  arrow  and  the  spear, 
and  also  firearms  when  they  finally  acquired  them.  They  were 
astonishingly  expert  with  the  bow,  singling  out  their  animal 

^  Commerce  of  the  Prairies, 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


4^  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

while  riding  full  speed  and  sending  an  arrow  entirely  through 
the  victim.  Sometimes  the  arrow  would  also  kill  a  calf  or  an- 
other buffalo  before  ceasing  its  flight.  The  spear  was  skilfully- 
used,  and  it  is  said  an  Amerind  would  ride  alongside  a  cow 
allowing  his  spear  to  rest  on  its  back  till  it  became  accustomed 
to  it  and  then  he  would  thrust  the  weapon  into  the  vitals  and 
deftly  withdraw  it,  all  without  even  slackening  his  horse's 
speed,  the  horse  being  trained  to  guide  by  the  movement  of 
his  rider.  Large  numbers  were  captured  by  building  a  sort  of 
corral  with  wing-like  sides  of  bushes  fifty  feet  apart  and  a  mile 
or  two  long,  or  more,  leading  to  the  entrance.  The  hunters 
closed  in  gradually  on  a  herd  and  drove  them  into  the  corral, 
other  men  being  stationed  behind  the  bushes  to  frighten  the 
buffalo.  Hind  describes  vividly  his  visit  to  one  of  these 
scenes' : 

'*A  sight  most  horrible  and  disgusting  broke  upon  us  as  we  as- 
cended a  sand  dune  overhanging  the  little  dell  in  which  the  pound 
was  built.  Within  a  circular  fence  120  feet  broad,  constructed  of 
the  trunks  of  trees,  laced  with  withes  together  and  braced  by  outside 
supports,  lay  tossed  in  every  conceivable  position,  over  two  hundred 
dead  buffalo.  From  old  bulls  to  calves  of  three  months  old,  animals 
of  every  age  were  huddled  together  in  all  the  forced  attitudes  of  vio- 
lent death.  Some  lay  on  their  backs,  with  eyes  starting  from  their 
heads,  and  tongue  thrust  out  through  clotted  gore.  Others  were 
impaled  on  the  horns  of  the  old  and  strong  bulls.  Others  again, 
which  had  been  tossed,  were  lying  with  broken  backs  two  and  three 
deep.  One  little  calf  hung  suspended  on  the  horns  of  a  bull  which 
had  impaled  it  in  the  wild  race  round  and  round  the  pound.  The 
Indians  looked  upon  the  dreadful  and  sickening  scene  with  evident 
delight." 

This  seems  like  great  slaughter,  and  so  it  was,  but,  compared 
with  the  white  man  out  after  tongues  and  hides  it  was  as  a 
raindrop  to  Shoshone  Falls. 

Another  way  was  to  take  advantage  of  the  blind  impetu- 
osity of  the  charge  of  a  herd  and  lead  it  over  the  brink  of  a 

'  The  Canadian  Red  River  Expedition  0/  i8j8,  H.  Y.  Hind,  p.  356. 


.    ft 

I  > 


£    CO 


«  pq 
o 

"3  O 

itt  . 

PQ 


i     g 


"    ^ 
&< 


48  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

precipice.  A  man  holding  upon  himself  a  buffalo  skin  with 
head  and  horns,  and  running  before  the  herd  toward  the  preci- 
pice, thus  induced  the  buffalo  to  follow,  as  they  took  him  to  be 
one  of  themselves.  At  the  brink  the  man  secured  himself  in 
some  safe  nook,  while  the  herd,  forced  by  the  rush  from  be- 
hind, fell  over  the  cliff  and  were  dashed  to  death.  The  hunters 
then  took  what  they  wished  and  left  the  rest  to  the  wolves. 

The  fur  companies  about  1835,  when  the  beaver  began  to 
fail  and  they  found  their  next  mainstay  in  buffalo  robes,  an- 
nually sent  to  market  about  a  hundred  thousand.  Add  to  this 
a  greater  number  killed  by  all  parties  for  various  purposes,  and 
it  is  reasonable  to  estimate  the  number  yearly  destroyed  at  not 
less  than  a  quarter  of  a  million.  When  the  value  of  robes  fell 
off,  the  buffalo  was  killed  for  hides  and  tallow.  Eventually 
the  price  of  hides  fell  to  no  more  than  one  dollar  apiece,  de- 
livered in  Leavenworth.  Made  into  leather,  the  bison  hides 
could  not  compare  with  those  of  domestic  cattle.  It  was  soft 
and  spongy  and  not  adapted  for  shoe,  for  sole,  or  for  harness 
leather.  Large  quantities  were  at  one  time  finished  by  Ameri- 
can tanners,  but  were  chiefly  used  for  making  horse  collars. 
A  good  deal  was  exported  to  Great  Britain.  The  process  of 
tanning  was  the  same  as  for  ordinary  leather.  But  no  method 
of  tanning  robes  with  the  hair  on  could  equal  that  of  the 
natives,  and  this  was  admitted  by  the  best  American  tanners, 
who  turned  out  few  robes  for  this  reason.  The  Amerind 
method  was  first  to  scrape  off  the  superfluous  flesh  with  a  sort 
of  bone  adze,  the  skin  being  either  stretched  on  a  frame  or 
pegged  out  on  the  ground.  When  dry  the  surface  was  rubbed 
and  scraped  again  and  then  covered  with  the  brains  and  rolled 
up  flesh  side  in  for  three  or  four  days,  the  brains  of  the  animal 
being  sufficient  for  its  own  hide.  Then  it  was  soaked  in  water 
and  softened  by  working  and  rubbing,  thoroughly  smoked  over 
a  fire  of  rotten  wood,  and  finally  rubbed  down  to  a  finish.  A 
large  hide  was  often  split  in  two  for  convenience  in  dressing 
and  then  sewed  together  after  completion  of  the  tanning 
process. 

One  hardly  thinks  of  Washington  Irving  as  a  sportsman 
and  buffalo  hunter,  yet  he  was  out  on  the  plains  in  1832  gaily 


Irving's  Hunt  49 

charging  after  buffalo  with  pistols  of  the  old  priming-pan  pat- 
tern, for  breech-loaders  were  not  yet  in  use,  and  many  of  the 
early  trappers  had  only  the  old  flint-lock.  It  was  the  breech- 
loading  repeater  and  canned  goods  that  finished  the  buffalo. 

"  There  is  a  mixture  of  the  awful  and  the  comic  [says  Irving]  in 
the  look  of  these  huge  animals  as  they  bear  their  great  bulk  forwards 
with  an  up-and-down  motion  of  the  unwieldy  head  and  shoulders; 
their  tail  cocked  up  like  the  cue  of  Pantaloon  in  a  pantomime,  the 
end  whisking  about  in  a  fierce  yet  whimsical  style,  and  their  eyes 
glaring  venomously  with  an  expression  of  fright  and  fury." 

Borrowing  a  companion's  double-barrelled  gun  which  had  one 
shot  remaining  in  it,  Irving  took  after  the  fleeing  herd  and 
succeeded  in  bringing  one  down. 

"  Dismounting,  I  now  fettered  my  horse  to  prevent  his  straying 
and  advanced  to  contemplate  my  victim.  I  am  nothing  of  a  sports- 
man; I  had  been  prompted  to  this  unwonted  exploit  by  the  magni- 
tude of  the  game,  and  the  excitement  of  an  adventurous  chase. 
Now  that  the  excitement  was  over  I  could  not  but  look  with  com- 
miseration upon  the  poor  animal  that  lay  struggling  and  bleeding  at 
my  feet.  His  very  size  and  importance,  which  had  before  inspired 
me  with  eagerness,  now  increased  my  compunction."  ' 

The  scurrying  herds  sometimes  ran  close  to  a  caravan  and 
mules,  horses,  and  oxen  have  been  known  to  run  away  with 
them.  The  buffalo  often  seemed  to  consider  the  domestic  ani- 
mals part  of  their  own  herd  and  the  cattle  appeared  to  hold 
the  same  opinion  of  the  buffalo.  Indeed,  there  was  little 
difference  except  in  appearance  between  a  herd  of  domestic 
cattle  and  one  of  buffalo.  The  mingling  was  prevented  by 
firing  into  the  buffalo  and  killing  several,  which  served  to 
turn  a  small  herd,  though  frequently  their  headway  was  so 
great  they  could  not  be  swerved  and  the  animals  were  stam- 
peded with  them.  Then  hours  of  hard  work  became  necessary 
to  rescue  the  tame  animals,  and  some  never  were  regained. 
The  season  had  much  to  do  with  the  manageability  of  a  herd, 
as  at  some  periods  the  bulls  were  extremely  fierce. 

*  Crayon  Miscellany .     A  Tour  on  the  Prairies. 


50 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


In  summer  the  bulls  would  find  wet  places  in  the  prairie 
and  soon  by  ploughing  and  wallowing  would  create  a  consid- 
erable puddle,  wherein  they  would  lave  themselves  and  finally 
emerge  coated  with  mud.  Others  would  follow  till  a  great 
depression  was  the  result.  These  depressions  were  called 
wallows  and  the  plains  were  covered  with  them.     When  filled 


Canyon  of  Desolation — Green  River. 

A  Barrier  to  the  Buffalo's  Westward  Movement. 
Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 


up  eventually  by  the  washings  of  the  rains  they  induced,  by 
superior  fertility,  a  rank  growth  which  distinguished  them  for 
a  long  distance. 

The  Osages  and  other  tribes  at  one  time  wove  blankets  of 
buffalo  wool  in  the  same  manner  that  the  Navajos  to  day 
weave  blankets  of  sheep's  wool.  Many  tribes  lived  by  and 
with  the  buffalo,  having  no  other  source  of  food,  shelter,  or 


Cross  Breeding 


51 


raiment,  and  this  animal  became  to  them  the  most  important 
being  in  creation.  It  entered  into  their  ceremonials  and  into 
almost  every  act  of  their  daily  life.  When  no  buffalo  had 
been  secured  for  a  time  and  the  camp  was  growing  hungry, 
the  Buffalo  Dance  was  performed  and,  as  Catlin  says,  it  never 
failed  to  bring  the  buffalo,  because  it  was  invariably  continued 
till  buffalo  came  in  sight — a  happy  event  signalled  by  a  look- 
out "throwing  "  his  robe.  All  then  rushed  to  the  hunt.  If  a 
white  buffalo  cow  were  taken, — and  there  were  occasionally 
white  buffalo, — the  skin  was  preserved  as  a  sacred  object  by  the 
Dakota  tribes.  It  was  sheltered  under  a  special  sacred  tent  and 
carried  about  from  camp  to  camp  with  the  greatest  reverence. 


Mandan  Buffalo  Dance. 

After  Catlin.     From  Smithsonian  Report,  1885. 

The  buffalo  was  easily  domesticated,  but  the  Amerind 
never  seems  to  have  attempted  to  tame  it,  although  Gomara 
states  that  a  certain  tribe  living  in  north-western  Mexico  about 
latitude  40° — wherever  that  might  have  been — had  herds  of 
tame  bison.  In  the  north-west  counties  of  Virginia  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century  a  mixed  breed  was  common,  and  in  the 
first  settlement  of  the  North-west  there  was  also  crossing  v/ith 


52 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


European  cattle.  The  cows  of  this  mixed  breed  that  were 
considered  best  for  milking  were  the  half  bloods  down  to  the 
quarter  or  even  eighth  of  buffalo  blood.  But  it  may  be  as- 
sumed that  had  there  been  any  considerable  gain  by  the  cross 
the  experiment  would  have  been  continued.  It  seems  prob- 
able in  view  of  the  physique  of  each  animal  that  the  cross  had 
heavier  forequarters  and  lighter  hindquarters  than  either 
parent,  and  a  lighter  milk  yield,  hence  it  would  not  be  found 
advantageous. 


Buffalo  Swimming  Missouri  River. 

After  Catlin.     From  Smithsonian  Report,  1885. 


The  calf,  Catlin  asserts,'  could  be  made  to  follow  a  horse- 
man simply  by  holding  the  hand  over  its  eyes  and  breathing 
into  its  nostrils  a  few  strong  breaths.  In  this  way  he  collected 
about  a  dozen,  which  were  fed  at  the  fort  on  milk  and  finally 
sent  down  the  river  to  St.  Louis  as  a  present  to  Choteau.  All 
but  one  died  on  the  journey.  The  breathing  operation  was 
not  unattended  with  danger  for  the  calves  were  vigorous  but- 
ters and  not  lightly  to  be  trifled  with.  The  trapper  Pattie, 
when  crossing  the  prairies,  shot  a  cow  and  concluded  to  take 

^Catlin's  Eight  Years,  vol,  i.,  pp.  25,  26. 


White  Bears  53 

the  little  calf  alive  to  camp.  So  he  laid  aside  his  equipment 
in  order  the  more  easily  to  catch  it,  expecting  a  hot  chase. 
But  when  he  approached  the  prospective  captive  it  also  ap- 
proached him,  and  with  the  speed  and  vigour  of  a  battering 
ram.  Mr.  Pattie  found  himself  stretched  on  the  ground,  with 
the  further  misfortune  of  being  knocked  back  again  every  time 
he  attempted  to  rise.  He  began  to  suspect  that  his  final  hour 
had  come,  when  he  succeeded  in  catching  the  calf  by  one  of 
its  legs,  and  killed  it  with  his  sheath  knife,  which  was  still  in 
his  belt. 

The  pursuit  of  the  buffalo  was  full  of  excitement  and  within 
reason  was  a  legitimate  sport.  Catlin  exclaims :  "  I  have  always 
counted  myself  a  prudent  man,  yet  1  have  waked  (as  it  were) 
out  of  the  delirium  of  the  chase,  into  which  I  had  fallen  as  into 
an  agitated  sleep,  and  through  which  I  had  passed  as  through 
a  delightful  dream,  where  to  have  died  would  have  been  but 
to  have  remained  riding  on  without  a  struggle  or  a  pang." 

The  herds  of  buffalo  were  always  followed  by  large  num- 
bers of  wolves,  both  the  small  coyote  variety  and  the  huge  grey 
wolf.  There  were  also  on  the  prairies  in  great  numbers  what 
the  early  frontiersmen  called  "white  bears."  These  were 
grizzlies.  They  were  very  bold  and  many  a  man  was  sent  to 
the  Happy  Hunting  Grounds  by  their  ferocious  power.  No 
animal  in  the  world  perhaps,  taken  all  in  all,  was  so  dangerous. 
Besides  these  there  were  numerous  antelope,  elk,  deer,  sheep, 
prairie  hens,  turkeys,  quail,  rabbits,  and  other  small  game, 
more  or  less  familiar  to  the  reader,  and,  therefore,  not  requiring 
an  extended  description  here.  The  beaver  and  the  buffalo 
were  the  animals  of  the  greatest  importance;  and  the  buffalo 
deserves  a  place  in  our  national  emblem  along  with  the  beaver, 
for  the  bones  of  the  bison  may  be  said  to  form  one  of  the 
corner-stones  of  the  Union. 


CHAPTER    IV 


The  People  of  the  Wilderness— Men  without  Rights— Killing  by  Alcohol- 
Change  in  the  Character  of  the  Native— Growth  of  the  War  Spirit— Classifi- 
cation by  Language — Dwellers  in  Tents  and  Builders  of  Houses— Farmers 
and  Hunters — Irrigation  Works — The  Coming  of  the  Horse. 

OF  more  than  equal  interest  with  the  magnificent  wilderness 
and  its  animal  occupants  was  the  human  dweller  within 
its  broad  limits,  the  Amerind,'  commonly  called  the  Indian. 
Still  another  name  for  him  was  Red  Man,  yet  he  was  neither 
an  Indian  nor  was  he  red,  except  when  he  painted  himself  with 
ochre  and  vermilion.  His  real  colour  was  various  shades  of 
brown  or  bronze,  rather  yellowish  than  red  where  protected 
from  the  sun.  We  are  not  surprised  that  roses  of  different 
hue  grow  in  a  garden,  but  there  has  always  been  unwarranted 
amazement  that  different  shades  of  men  should  be  found  in  the 
garden  of  the  universe.  There  appears  to  be  no  reason  why 
men  should  not  vary  in  colour  as  well  as  all  other  animals  and 
plants.  But  though  races  of  mankind  may  vary  in  colour  they 
never,  so  far  as  now  determined,  have  varied  in  any  other  es- 
sential; or  at  least  only  slightly  in  fundamental  characteristics. 
In  general  physical  composition  all  men  to-day  are  identical, 
and  there  is  no  certain  evidence  that  they  have  ever  differed 
more  than  they  now  do."     Man  is  everywhere  the  same  as  far 

'  A  substitute  word,  compounded  of  the  first  two  syllables  of  American  and 
the  first  syllable  of  Indian,  adopted  by  some  leading  ethnologists. 

■^  I  am  not  now  taking  theories  into  account.  The  theory  that  man  has  evolved 
from  a  lower  organism  seems  to  be  correct.  Here  reference  is  made  only  to  abso- 
lute facts. 

54 


I 


5^  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

back  in  the  ages  as  he  can  be  traced.  Some  may  be  stronger, 
or  larger,  or  shorter,  than  others,  with  brains  more  or  less 
developed,  but  they  are  all  practically  alike,  even  to  their 
emotions. 

Races,  as  a  whole,  differ  from  each  other,  in  their  ability  to 
make  machines,  in  their  ability  to  secure  comfort,  in  language, 
and  in  their  social  regulations;  differences  of  degree.  These 
qualities  are  begun  and  fostered  more  by  stimulating  circum- 
stances than  by  particular  superiority  of  race.  For  example, 
the  Europeans  forged  ahead  mainly  because  they  were  pos- 
sessed of  animals  easily  domesticated  that  would  supply  their 
needs.  The  Amerind  had  no  such  animals  in  North  America 
except  the  bison  and  the  dog.  The  latter  he  utilised  to  the 
full  as  a  draught  and  pack  animal,  as  a  wool  producer,  and  as 
a  supply  of  animal  food.  Why  he  did  not  domesticate  the 
bison  is  a  problem.  Perhaps  it  was  because  there  were  too 
many  of  them.  The  store  of  animal  food  was  usually  over- 
abundant with  all  Amerinds  living  in  the  range  of  the  buffalo, 
so  there  was  no  spur  to  economy.  We  may  imagine  that  if 
the  buffalo  from  time  to  time  had  appeared  in  comparatively 
small  numbers  in  the  thickly  populated  country  of  the  Aztecs 
where  animal  food  was  so  scarce  that  an  elaborate  system  of 
human  sacrifices  developed  to  supply  this  deficiency,  the  latter 
eventually  would  have  been  abandoned  and  captive  buffalo 
substituted  for  captive  man.  Domestication,  to  guard  the 
supply,  would  then  have  been  an  easy  step.  But  the  buffalo 
was  permitted  to  roam  at  will,  and  the  dog  remained  the  sole 
domestic  animal  in  possession  of  the  people  of  North  America 
before  the  arrival  of  the  white  race.' 

The  Amerind  was  not  a  savage.  He  was  a  barbarian  with 
a  rather  well  ordered  society.  He  possessed  a  high  quality  of 
intellect,  and  he  differed  from  his  white  antagonist  more  in  ex- 
ternal complexion  than  in  any  other  particular  except  his  social 
organisation,  which  was  one  the  white  man  had  passed  through 

^  The  domestication  of  the  "buffalo  by  some  tribe  referred  to  by  Gomara  is  not 
sufficiently  definite  to  be  accepted,  and,  furthermore,  if  true,  could  have  been  only 
a  limited  case.  In  Arizona  there  is  some  indication  that  an  animal  like  the  vicuna 
was  used,  but  it  is  very  vague. 


Native  Traits 


57 


and  left  behind  in  centuries  far  past.  But  the  Amerind  had 
the  same  emotions.  He  loved  his  home,  his  family, — as  con- 
stituted by  his  social  regulations, — and  his  children.  As  to 
honesty  and  dishonesty,  the  balance  was  certainly  not  far  from 
even,  average  for  average;  if  anything,  the  Amerind  had  more 
respect  for  the  ideals  of  his  race  than  was  the  case  with  the 
white  man  with  reference  to  his.  Of  course  he  had  abundant 
vices  like  all  the  rest  of  humanity.      He  was  often  horribly 


A  Pai  Ute  Family  at  Home. 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Millers,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 


cruel  to  his  enemies.  But  on  the  whole  he  was  not  worse  than 
the  European  who  brought  him  degradation ;  who  frequently 
soaked  him  with  cheap  rum  and  alcohol,  in  order  more  easily 
to  exchange  nothing  for  valuable  furs;  who  engrafted  upon 
him  more  and  worse  vices,  who  shot  him  needlessly,  and  who 
reviled  him  as  he  sank  helpless  under  the  heavy  tide  of  imposi- 
tion. Love  of  home  and  defence  of  country  are  ever  extolled 
as  of  the  highest  merit  in  the  white  race ;  in  the  American 
native  they  were  crimes.  From  the  beginning  of  the  contact 
the  Amerind  began  to  change  for  the  worse. 

The  white  man  blamed  all  Amerinds  for  every  crime  and 
the  Amerind  blamed  the  white  man  similarly.     Each  visited 


58 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


retribution  on  the  other  without  discrimination.  The  antago- 
nism grew  and  grew.  Tribes  which  at  first  received  the  whites 
most  kindly  and  were  continually  cheated  were  apt  to  become 
bitterest  enemies.  On  the  Missouri  in  1810  Wilson  Price  Hunt 
asked  some  Amerinds  why  they  killed  white  men,  to  which 
they  answered,  "because  they  kill  us — that  man — "  pointing 


A  Ute  Mountain  Home. 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

to  Carson — "killed  one  of  our  brothers  last  summer."'  This 
statement  was  true.  Carson  while  with  the  Arikara  had  shot, 
probably  for  amusement,  across  the  river  at  a  war  party  of 
Sioux.  The  latter  then  retaliated  by  killing  three  whites.  In 
this  way  the  mutual  antagonism  multiplied  as  the  years  passed, 
just  as  a  snowball  increases  when  it  rolls  down  hill.  The  native 
soon  discovered  that  he  must  apply  himself  to  his  protection, 
and  from  being  comparatively  peaceful  he  became  intensely 
warlike,  emulating  the  example  of  the  Iroquois  and  Apache. 
Had  he  possessed  the  power  of  organising,  the  story  of  white 


6o  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

encroachment  on  his  domain  would  have  read  differently.  As 
it  is,  it  may  be  considered  a  great  loss  to  history  that  we  have 
so  little  of  the  story  from  his  point  of  view. 

Before  the  nineteenth  century  was  half  over,  the  country 
east  of  the  Mississippi  was  entirely  appropriated  by  the  whites. 
The  various  tribes  that  had  lived  there  were  absorbed,  exter- 
minated, or  crowded  out ;  the  same  process  was  to  be  repeated 
in  the  Wilderness.  The  Iroquois  held  their  ground  in  New 
York  and  succeeded  in  exchanging  their  former  holdings  for 
small  reservations;  and  here  was  another  story  of  the  white 
man's  perfidy.  The  Seminole,  the  Creek,  and  the  Sac-and- 
Fox  tribes  were  finally  crushed  and  their  remnants  removed, 
with  others,  beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  general  government 
as  a  rule  tried  to  deal  justly  by  the  Amerind,  yet  it  has  been 
much  censured.  Its  task  was  an  impossibility  as  long  as  so 
many  white  men  who  came  in  contact  with  the  natives  were 
willing  to  set  aside  every  principle  of  fair  dealing  and  treat 
them  with  no  more  consideration  than  they  did  the  beaver  and 
the  buffalo.  They  wanted  their  furs  and  anything  else  of 
commercial  yalue  that  they  possessed,  and  no  subterfuge  was 
too  dishonourable  to  practise  on  them.  The  matter  for  sur- 
prise is  not  that  the  Amerind  was  occasionally  on  the  war-path, 
but  that  he  was  not  always  there.  He  received  daily  lessons 
in  cupidity,  cruelty,  and  dishonour. 

Thus  far  the  most  exact  basis  for  the  classification  of  these 
interesting  people  has  been  language.  It  was  some  time  after 
the  early  intercourse  with  the  natives  of  the  East  before  the 
wide  divergence  in  language  was  appreciated  and  all  attempts 
to  classify  them  fell  into  confusion.  Finally,  in  1836,  Albert 
Gallatin  began  an  arrangement  by  language  which,  reorganised 
by  Powell,  in  1885-86,  has  been  generally  adopted  by  ethnolo- 
gists, and  to-day,  while  not  entirely  approved,  it  is  the  only 
method  that  is  satisfactory. 

By  this  system  all  tribes  whose  language  roots  are  the  same 
are  classed  together  no  matter  how  widely  separated  geo- 
graphically they  might  have  been.  Notwithstanding  the  re- 
markable homogeneity  of  all  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the 
continent  in  customs,  habits,  and  organisation,  yet  more  than 


Classification 


6i 


sixty  separate  stock  languages  were  discovered  in  North 
America.  Each  one  of  these  is  taken  to  represent  a  "stock" 
group  to  which  is  given  a  title  derived  from  Gallatin's  first 
designation  or  from  the  leading  tribe  in  that  particular  stock, 
with  the  addition  of  "an"  or  "ian,"  and  all  tribes  having 
similar  language  roots  are  classed  with  this  group  or  stock. 
Thus  in  the  Siouan  stock,  the  title  is  taken  from  the  leading 
tribe,  the  Sioux,  and  all  affiliated  languages  are  brought  under 


Umatilla  Tipi  of  Rush  Mats  on  Columbia  River. 
From  Lewis  &  Clark  by  O.  D.  Wheeler. 

the  same  heading,  as  Dakota,  Crow,  Hidatsa,  Iowa,  Mandan, 
etc.,  and  in  the  Athapascan  the  title  is  taken  from  the  Atha- 
pascas  of  the  far  north,  while  the  Apaches  and  Navajos  of  the 
south  are  classed  under  the  same  heading,  as  they  speak 
related  languages.^ 

It  so  happened  that  the  Wilderness  possessed   a  greater 

^  For  a  list  of  stocks  and  sub-stocks,  and  of  tribes,  classified  according  to  lan- 
guage, see  The  North  Americans  of  Yesterday,  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh,  Appendix, 
p.  461.  By  means  of  these  lists  the  proper  places  of  the  majority  of  tribes  can  be 
readily  found. 


62 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


variety  of  these  stock  groups  than  any  other  part  of  the  con- 
tinent, one  portion,  that  lying  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
containing  an  astonishing  number  of  small  groups  living  con- 


Mt 


'^^i> 


Amerind  Linguistic  Map. 

After  Bu.  of  Eth.  Seventh  An.  Rep. 


tiguously,  yet  each  speaking  a  totally  distinct  language.  It 
was  therefore  often  difficult  for  the  early  invaders  to  make 
themselves  understood,  as  well  as  to  understand.  Among  the 
Amerinds  themselves  a  "sign  "  language  existed  which  was  of 


Distribution  63 

remote  origin  and  which  was  convenient  and  expressive  for 
intercourse  between  tribes  speaking  radically  different  tongues. 
Sometimes  a  third  language  served  to  convey  ideas  between 
tribes  or  between  them  and  white  men,  this  third  language 
being  one  belonging  to  some  widely  diffused  stock  of  the  re- 
gion. Still  another  language  was  one  which  grew  up  spon- 
taneously, composed  of  words  from  two  or  more  languages  as 
well  as  of  a  lot  of  words  which  in  one  way  or  another  originated 
themselves,  a  mongrel  language  perfectly  understandable  but 
made  up  of  flotsam  and  jetsam.  Of  this  class  the  most  widely 
used  and  best  known  was  that  called  Chinook  jargon,  originat- 
ing in  the  Columbia  river  region  and  composed  of  words  from 
many  different  languages,  including  those  of  the  white  man, 
as  well  as  words  that  never  existed  anywhere  else. 

Taking  language  as  a  basis,  we  find  the  Wilderness  divided 
mainly  between  two  great  families,  or  stocks,  which  had  grown 
numerous  and  were  able  to  spread  over  a  vast  extent  of  coun- 
try, though  each  contained  a  large  number  of  separate  tribes 
often  at  war  with  each  other,  at  least  after  the  arrival  of  the 
whites.  These  two  stocks  were  the  Siouan  and  the  Shosho- 
nean.  Of  the  first,  some  leading  members  were  mentioned 
above;  of  the  second,  the  Shoshone,  Comanche,  Ute,  and 
Moki  (or  Shinumo)  were  representative,  in  fact  comprised 
almost  the  entire  stock.  The  Siouan  division,  or  family, 
ranged  from  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  westward,  with  its 
lower  border  stretching  diagonally  from  south-eastern  Arkansas 
as  far  as  our  present  Yellowstone  Park,  north  to  the  upper 
boundary  of  the  United  States  and  beyond.  They  were 
flanked  above  by  tribes  of  another  stock,  widespread  and 
powerful,  north  to  Hudson  Bay  and  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
the  Algonquian,  represented  by  the  Blackfeet,'  Chippewa, 
Knisteneau  (or  Cree),  and  others.  South  of  the  Siouan  range 
came  that  of  the  Caddoan,  in  south-western  Arkansas,  the 
eastern  half  of  Texas,  and  in  Louisiana  with  a  central  group 
in  the  midst  of  the  Siouan  range,  in  southern  Nebraska,  and  a 
northern  one  also  surrounded  by  the  Siouan  people,  in  North 

^  There  was  also  a  Dakota  sub-tribe  called  Blackfeet.     In  their  own  language 
they  were  Sihasapa — a  branch  of  the  Tetons. 


64 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


Dakota.  The  northern  was  the  Ankara  (or  Ree),  the  middle 
the  several  sub-tribes  of  Pawnee,  and  the  southern  the  Caddo, 
Wichita,  Kichai,  and  others.  Adjacent  to  the  central  Caddoan 
group,  on  the  west,  was  another  section  of  Algonquian  stock, 
the  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho,  and  just  north  of  this  came  the 
Kiowan,  represented  by  the  tribe  from  which  the  stock  name 
comes,  the  Kiowa.  This  tribe  was  intimately  associated  with 
the  Comanche,  and  there  was  a  strong  similarity  in  language. 


A  Puebloan  Farmhouse. 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

West  of  all  these  ranged  the  Shoshonean  stock  from  the 
middle  line  of  Texas  north-westward  almost  to  the  State  of 
Washington,  west  to  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  south-westward 
like  an  inverted  U  around  other  stocks  in  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  sending  a  slender  arm  entirely  across  California  to 
the  sea.  This  stock  occupied  a  large  part  of  the  territory  once 
claimed  by  Spain  and  Mexico,  while  the  Siouan  covered  the 
major  part  of  what  was  the  Louisiana  wilderness.  Imme- 
diately south  of  the  country  of  the  Shoshonean  tribes  lay  that 
of  some  branches  of  another  numerous  people  already  men- 
tioned, the  Athapascan,  whose  main  body  was  far  to  the  north, 
spreading  across  the  whole  extreme  north-western  part  of  the 


Plenty-Horses,  a  Cheyenne. 
Photograph  by  J.  K  Killers   U   S.  Geol,  Survey. 
65 


b6  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

continent  through  Alaska,  almost  to  the  coast,  which  was  occu- 
pied by  a  narrow  fringe  of  Eskimauan  people.  These  southern 
Athapascans,  known  as  Apache  and  Navajo,  were  thus  a  long 
way  from  any  relatives,  but  no  people  on  the  continent  were 
better  able  to  look  out  for  themselves,  both  being  warlike  from 
the  first,  though  this  tendency  was  aggravated  by  the  imposi- 
tions of  the  early  whites.  The  Navajo  appear  to  have  been 
considerably  changed  by  an  admixture  of  other  blood,  which 
may  be  termed  Puebloan,'  the  term  in  this  case  being  used  not 
to  designate  people  with  similar  language,  but  with  similar 
culture  and  social  organisation.  The  Apache,  by  his  swiftness 
of  action,  his  mobility,  and  his  general  skill  as  a  predatory 
warrior,  kept  the  more  peaceful  tribes  in  a  state  of  constant 
turmoil  and  terror.  At  the  same  time  he  seems  originally  to 
have  received  the  whites  fairly  well.  In  some  ways  he  resem- 
bled the  Iroquois,  yet  he  had  no  approach  to  their  masterly 
organisation. 

Below  the  Athapascan  group  of  the  present  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  was  the  Piman,  a  peaceful  agricultural  people, 
whose  main  range  was  in  Mexico;  and  lying  between  the 
Piman  and  the  Shoshonean  was  the  northern  part  of  the 
Yuman  country,  their  southern  range  being  the  peninsula  of 
Lower  California. 

Scattered  irregularly  through  the  Athapascan  district  were 
the  villages  of  the  sedentary  Puebloans,  a  group  made  up  of 
tribes  speaking  different  languages  but  more  or  less  affiliated 
by  their  similarity  of  habit.  They  were  often  at  war  with  each 
other.  They  were  house-builders,  though  that  may  be  stated 
with  regard  to  many  of  the  tribes  of  other  stocks.  Their 
houses,  however,  were  erected,  with  a  view  to  greater  perma- 
nency than  any  others,  of  adobe  clay,  or  of  stone,  for  their 
country  was  deficient  in  game  and  in  forest,  and  they  relied 
largely,    chiefly   indeed,    upon   their  crops   of   maize.     These 

^  Throughout  the  South-west,  in  the  Colorado  and  Rio  Grande  River  basins, 
certain  tribes  of  similar  culture  and  village  habits  once  lived.  These  seem  to  have 
been  of  different  stocks,  exactly  as  the  village  building  tribes  of  to-day  are.  Some 
were  probably  Shoshonean,  some  Piman,  others  were  allied  to  the  Taiioan  and 
Keresan,  while  still  others  were  of  stocks  now  extinct.  For  all  these  the  term 
Puebloan  is  convenient. 


The  Puebloans 


67 


groups  are  now  well  known,  particularly  the  seven  villages  of 
the  Moki,  that  of  Zufii,  of  Taos,  and  a  number  of  others  along 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  Moki  (or  Moquis)  as  stated  above  are 
classed  as  Shoshone- 
an.'  The  Zuni  are  de- 
signated Zunian,  and 
others  fall  under 
Keresan,  from  Keres 
(or  Queres),  and  Ta- 
ftoan.  When  consid- 
ered otherwise  than 
linguistically,  the  gen- 
eral term,  Puebloan 
(really  villagers)  is  use- 
ful for  reasons  ex- 
plained above.  The 
tribes  of  this  group, 
remnants  of  a  once 
far  more  numerous 
people,  are  some  of 
the  most  interesting 
of  all  the  Amerinds 
within  our  borders. 

In  the  middle  of 
Texas  was  the  Ton- 
kawan  group,  a  small 
remnant,  and  at  the 
southern  extremity 
the  Karankawan,  an- 
other small  remnant, 
and  the  Coahuiltecan, 
named  from  the  Mexi- 
can state,  Coahuilk  In  what  is  now  the  State  of  Louisiana 
were   several   other  rbqinants,  the  Chittimachan,   Natchezan, 


A  Pai  Ute  IVTodernised. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


'  North  of  the  Colorado  River  are  innumerable  house  ruins  ascribed  by  the 
present  Pai  Utes  (Shoshonean)  to  the  Shinumo.  They  also  call  the  Mokis, 
Shinumo,  hence  Powell  applied  this  term  to  the  whole  group.  The  probability 
is  that  the  Shinumo  were  all  Shoshonean. 


68  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Tonikan,  Adaizan,  and  Attacapan.  West  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  extending  north  to  the  boundary,  was  the  ex- 
traordinary  conglomeration  of  small  stocks,  terminating  in 
the  wider-spread  Salishan  which  reached  up  into  British 
Columbia. 

The  dwellings  of  these  various  tribes  had  a  great  deal  of 
variety.  It  was  popularly  supposed  for  many  years  that  an 
"Indian  "  lived  only  in  a  skin  tent  or  a  wickiup,  or  any  shift- 
less kind  of  a  shelter,  consequently  when  it  was  discovered 
that  there  were  some  who  had  lived  centuries  ago  in  rather 
well  constructed  houses  which  were  found  in  ruins,  it  was  as- 
sumed that  these  people  must  have  been  of  another  race  and 
a  superior  one.  The  fact  that  tribes  were  still  building  and 
occupying  houses  of  the  same  kind,  who  were  only  common 
"Indians,"  was  not  for  years  permitted  to  interfere  with  the 
romance,  but  now  the  "vanished-race"  theories  are  pretty  well 
abandoned  except  perhaps  by  visionary  writers  who  do  not 
understand  the  field.  The  ruins  were  found  in  canyons  and 
valleys  where  natural-rock  debris  and  a  poverty  of  timber  and 
large  skins  almost  compel  house-building.  A  vast  abundance 
of  gypsiferous  clay  furnished  another  excellent  building  ma- 
terial, for  that  climate,  and  this  was  utilised  in  the  South-west 
where  other  materials  were  difficult  to  secure.  They  also 
rammed  this  clay  mixed  with  gravel  into  large  wicker  frames 
which  were  lifted,  after  the  mass  had  hardened,  to  aid  in  pre- 
paring other  blocks  on  top,  so  that  a  sort  of  clay  concrete-block 
wall  was  raised.  When  the  white  men  first  came  to  the  coun- 
try, a  ruin  of  one  of  these  large  houses  called  Casa  Grande  stood 
in  Arizona  near  the  present  town  of  Florence.  No  one  knows 
when  this  structure  was  erected  or  abandoned.  It  is  still 
standing  about  as  first  described  by  whites.  The  government 
has  assumed  its  care  and  protection. 

The  Mandan  built  a  large  round  earth-covered  wigwam 
which  was  substantial  and  comfortable.  The  Dakota  developed 
the  portable  tipi.  The  Shoshone  lived  in  skin  tents  and  huts 
of  boughs,  as  did  the  Comanche.  The  tribes  of  the  North-west 
built  strong  houses  of  slabs,  often  very  long.  The  tribes  of 
California  built  of  brush  and  slabs.      Each  people  constructed 


S   pq 


S    2 
c3  S 


70  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

a  habitation  in  accordance  with  the  facilities  of  the  region  they 
occupied,  and  while  house-building  may  indicate  a  certain 
superiority  of  social  advancement  it  is  no  mark  of  race  differ- 
entiation. Tribes  of  one  stock  built  good  houses  and  lived  in 
mere  brush  shelters  at  the  same  time. 

Some  of  the  occupied  villages  became  of  great  importance 
in  the  early  days  of  white  intrusion,  notably  Taos,  a  pueblo  on 
the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Grande.  This  figured  prominently 
in  the  events  which  broke  the  Wilderness  from  the  time  of 
Espejo  to  the  acquisition  of  the  region  by  the  Americans,  and 
is  standing  to-day. 

For  subsistence  the  tribes  relied  on  different  things  depend- 
ing on  the  nature  of  the  country.  The  Siouan  and  other 
plains  people  where  the  buffalo  roamed,  lived  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  it.  The  meat  was  food ;  the  skins  raiment  and 
shelter;  the  sinew,  thread;  the  robes,  beds,  and  so  on.  The 
Puebloans  having  few  or  no  buffalo  and  little  game  cultivated 
maize.  Many  other  tribes  also  cultivated  this  grain,  particu- 
larly those  living  along  watercourses.  In  some  districts  irri- 
gation had  to  be  resorted  to,  and  the  Amerind  was  equal 
to  the  problem.  Where  shower  waters  were  insufficient  or 
could  not  be  turned  at  once  amongst  the  corn,  elaborate 
and  extensive  irrigation  canals  were  constructed,  remains  of 
which  have  been  discovered.  One  of  the  largest  was  found 
by  modern  engineers  to  be  so  well  placed  that  they  followed 
its  course  for  some  distance  with  their  canal.  The  Moki  still 
plant  their  corn  with  a  sharpened  stick  and  guide  the  water 
from  every  shower  through  the  fields. 

These  people  had  solved  the  problem  of  agriculture  in  an 
arid  country,  long  before  the  Spaniard,  or  the  Mormon,  or  any 
other  foreigner  planning  irrigation  had  ever  set  foot  on  this 
continent. 

Their  manufactures  covered  a  considerable  range.  They 
made  clothing  and  blankets,  of  wool,  skins,  and  cotton.  They 
were  unsurpassed  in  basketry;  they  made  excellent  pottery. 
They  originally  used  as  weapons  the  bow  and  arrow,  the. lance, 
and  various  kinds  of  war  clubs.  Their  beverage  was  mainly 
water,  though  some  knew  how  to  concoct  intoxicating  drink. 


72  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Where  the  maple  tree  grew,  its  sap  and  syrup  were  utilised, 
and  they  also  made  sugar  from  it.  Salt  they  obtained  from 
briny  lakes.  Of  mining  they  had  no  knowledge  whatever, 
nor  did  they  have  metals,  excepting,  near  the  Missouri,  an 
occasional  fragment  of  copper. 

Cooking  was  done  in  pits  previously  heated  by  large  fires, 
or  in  wicker  jugs  by  means  of  hot  stones  put  inside;  or  it  was 
done  in  earthenware  pots.  Bread,  when  made  of  corn,  or  of 
grass-seed  meal,  was  baked  on  hot  stones.  Their  musical  in- 
struments were  drums,  rattles,  flutes,  and  whistles.  Of  cere- 
monials they  had  a  great  many.  Sometimes  these  were 
sickening  ordeals,  like  the  now  famous  Sun  Dance  of  the 
Omaha;  or  the  Moki  Snake  Dance,  where  live  rattlesnakes 
form  part  of  the  ritual  and  are  carried  about  by  the  Snake 
priests,  even  in  their  mouths. 

Notwithstanding  an  intermittent  and  desultory  sort  of  war- 
fare kept  up  between  tribes  of  the  same  stock,  as  well  as  of 
different  stocks,  comparatively  few  were  killed  in  this  way  be- 
fore the  European  came.  Night  attacks  were  seldom  made 
and  in  day  attacks  not  many  at  one  time  were  injured.  The 
ordinary  routine  was  one  of  peace.  It  is  probable  that  in  the 
American  Civil  War  alone  more  men  were  killed  than  ever  at 
one  time  in  aboriginal  days  occupied  the  same  area.  Almost 
four  thousand  were  destroyed  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  and  in 
the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  fully  fifteen  thousand.  Even 
proportionately  the  wars  of  the  "savages  "  were  mere  child's 
play  compared  to  this.  But  when  the  white  man  crossed  the 
Mississippi  and  began  to  encroach  from  the  east  and  then  from 
the  west  and  one  tribe  was  forced  back  upon  another  as  the 
wind  beats  the  combing  waves  upon  a  lee  shore,  matters  began 
to  change.  A  large  infusion  of  inferior  white  blood  aided  this 
change.  Then  came  the  horse !  It  was  a  deficiency  suddenly 
and  completely  supplied.  The  warrior  on  horseback  was  quite 
a  different  being  from  the  one  on  foot.  The  boundless  Plains 
were  circumscribed.  And  the  gun  !  Another  void  by  this  was 
so  admirably  filled  that  horse  and  gun  and  Amerind  instantly 
merged  into  one;  an  indissoluble  trio.  Henceforth  he  sup- 
plied himself  with  an  abundance  of  horses  and  with  the  best 


fe     CO 


c4      o 


ft  pq 

I  t 

tn  >» 

S  2 

CO  Jh 


74 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


guns  and  ammunition  he  could  get,  till  at  the  fearful  moment 
on  the  Little  Big  Horn,  he  was  better  armed  than  the  white 
soldiers  sent  to  overpower  him.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult 
always  to  view  things  dispassionately  from  our  antagonist's 
standpoint,  but  when  we  succeed  in  doing  so  we  invariably 
discover  that  he  has  some  of  the  justice  and  virtue  on  his  side. 
The  Amerind  seen  in  this  way  was  not  half  as  bad  as  he  has 
been  painted  by  his  conqueror,  who  was  prone  to  gloss  over 
and  forget  his  own  shortcomings. 


CHAPTER   V 

Three  Conditions  of  Wilderness  Life — Farming  in  the  Driest  Country — The  Cache 
— The  Clan,  the  Unit  of  the  Tribe — Hospitality — Totems  and  Totem  Marks 
— Dress — An  Aboriginal  Geographer — The  Winter  Life — The  War-path,  the 
Scalp-lock,  and  the  Scalp-dance — Mourning  the  Lost  Braves — Drifting. 


THE  daily  life  of  these  natives  of  the  Wilderness  was  regu- 
lated chiefly  by  the  food  quest.  With  reference  to  this 
quest  they  existed  in  three  general  states  or  conditions: 
hunter,  fisher,  farmer.  Sometimes  two,  sometimes  all,  these 
conditions  were  combined  at  one  time.  But  no  matter  which 
condition  a  tribe  might  be  living  in,  nor  what  language  it 
might  speak,  its  customs  and  social  organisation  were  surpris- 
ingly similar  to  those  of  all  the  other  tribes.  So  that  we  have 
the  picture  of  numerous  tribes  dwelling  in  houses  of  widely 
varying  construction,  subsisting  on  food  obtained  in  radically 
different  ways,  and  speaking  distinctly  different  languages, 
with  general  habits,  customs,  and  ceremonials  almost  identical, 
yet  with  the  details  of  the  daily  routine  regulated  largely  by 
the  kind  of  food  most  easily  obtained  in  their  particular  lo- 
cality. Those  in  the  higher  mountains  and  on  the  plains  were 
mostly  hunters.  The  tribes  of  the  plains  subsisted  principally 
on  the  buffalo,  though  some  few  cultivated  maize,  beans,  and 
squashes  along  the  Arkansas,  the  Platte,  and  the  Missouri 
river  bottoms.  To  these  people  of  the  prairies  the  horse  was 
the  greatest  prize.  Those  living  mainly  by  fishing  were  tribes 
of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  along  the  Pacific  river-valleys,  like  the 
Columbia,   where  the    salmon   run.     Most   of  this  class  had 

75 


76 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


small  use  for  the  horse ;  many  had  for  him  no  use  whatever, 
doing  their  entire  travelling  by  canoe,  and  handling  this  craft 
with  unsurpassed  dexterity. 

Those  in  the  farmer  condition  were  the  people  of  the  ex- 
tremely arid  south-western  quarter  where  large  game  was  scarce, 

and  where  crops  of  maize  and 
beans,  grown  with  considerable 
difficulty  and  labour,  were  the 
principle  reliance.  With  maize 
as  a  basis  of  food  supply  it  was 
possible  for  "a  tribe  to  be  far 
more  sedentary  than  when  sub- 
sistence was  obtained  by  the 
chase.  Hostile  neighbours  could 
be  avoided.  A  whole  tribe 
could  occupy  fortifications,  like 
the  Pueblo  villages  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  midst  of  some 
wide  valley,  near  a  river  or 
other  water  supply,  or  could 
retire  to  some  fastness  of  cliff 
or  mountain,  easily  defended, 
where  ample  crops  could  be 
grown  on  bottom  lands,  and  where  recesses  in  cliffs  afforded 
sites  for  secure  and  comfortable  homes,  as  well  as  great  quan- 
tities of  fallen  debris  for  building  purposes.  Such  were  hun- 
dreds of  villages  scattered  over  the  South-west  as  far  north  as 
the  southern  parts  of  Utah  and  Colorado  ;  and  even  perhaps  to 
Salt  Lake.  There  was  no  need  of  sallying  forth  to  the  con- 
fines of  hostile  country  in  search  of  food;  and,  before  the 
coming  of  the  whites  placed  the  gun  and  horse  at  the  service 
of  the  more  predatory  tribes,  they  would  not  readily  risk  an 
attack  on  such  strongholds. 

The  cultivation  of  maize  was  increasing,  except  on  the  im- 
mediate Pacific  Coast,  where  it  was  not  cultivated  at  all.  Even 
the  Pai  Utes,  who  lived  largely  on  grass  seeds  and  edible 
plants  and  roots,  had  begun  to  have  small  gardens  where 
beans,  pumpkins,  melons,  and  maize  grew.     East  of  the  Mis- 


Moki  Woman  Modelling  a  Clay  Jug. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


9¥  THt 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Maize  Culture 


77 


sissippi  and  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  enormous  quantities  of 
the  great  staple  of  the  New  World  were  produced  before  the 
white  people  arrived.  Tribes  to  the  north  in  the  region  of 
i.linnesota  were  beginning  to  understand  its  cultivation,  and 
the  importance  of  having  a  food  supply  under  control.  In  the 
South-west,  for  an  unknown  period,  it  had  been  the  mainstay. 
There  it  was  cultivated  by  irrigation  whereas  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  continent  the  rainfall  was,  of  course,  sufficient.  In 
the  South-west  the  men  did  the  work  in  the  fields,  leaving  the 
management  of 
the  household 
to  the  women ; 
even  the  building 
of  the  houses  in 
fact.  But  in  dis- 
tricts where  the 
products  of  the 
soil  formed  only 
a  minor  part  of 
the  subsistence, 
or  where  it  was 
mainly  or  entire- 
ly wild  meat,  the 
men  for  so  large 
a  part  of  their 
time  were  en- 
gaged in  the  pursuit  of  game  that  the  camp  and  household 
duties,  as  well  as  what  tending  of  crops  might  be  necessary, 
fell  to  the  women.  Their  labours  were  intermittent,  and  when 
the  men  returned  from  the  chase,  sometimes  worn  out  if  game 
were  scarce,  the  women  waited  upon  them  just  as  a  white 
woman  waits  on  her  cross  husband  when  he  comes  home  tired 
from  the  shop. 

Besides  the  various  game  animals,  and  maize,  beans,  squash, 
grass  seeds,  pine  nuts,  cactus  apples,  wild  potatoes,  agave,  and 
numerous  palatable  roots  and  berries,  the  dog  was  largely 
eaten.  Some  kinds  of  young  dogs  were  said,  when  well 
cooked,  to  be  much  like  pig,  but  the  larger  ones  were  apt  to 


Earthenware  from  Moki  Region. 


Smoking 


79 


be  coarse  and  rank.  In  addition  to  these  numerous  kinds  of 
food,  human  flesh  was  occasionally  eaten,  but  only  when  in 
the  pangs  of  starvation:  or  as  a  religious  ceremony.  When 
no  water  was  to  be  had,  the  plains  tribes  would  kill  a  buffalo 
and  drink  the  blood.  They  often  also  ate  the  entrails  of  ani- 
mals raw,  particularly  those  of  the  buffalo,  which  latter  delicacy 
Harmon  '  indulged  in  and  speaks  of  as  "very  palatable."  All 
the  Amerinds  smoked,  and  with  most  tribes  every  consultation 
or  council  or  friendly  visit  was  opened  by  the  tobacco  pipe. 
Indeed  the  place  of  tobacco  and  the  pipe  among  the  natives 
of  the  continent  was  one  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  was 
not  always  what  we  call  tobacco  that  was  smoked,  but  fre- 


Old  Mandan  House. 

From  Wonderland,  1903 — Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

quently  the  inner  bark  of  the  red  willow,  the  leaves  of  the 
manzanita  bush,  dog-wood  bark  and  sumach  leaves,  or  a  plant 
resembling  garden  sage,  which  according  to  Beckwourth,''  grew 
wild  in  the  country  of  the  Snakes,  but  which  was  cultivated  by 
the  Crows  and  several  other  tribes.  Most  of  the  Algonquian 
tribes  grew  large  quantities  of  maize,  and  cooked  it  with  beans 
and  other  things.  From  them,  and  their  neighbours,  we  have 
derived  not  only  a  number  of  dishes,  but  their  names  as  well, 
such  as  supawn,  succotash,  pone,  mush,  etc. 

Many  tribes  laid  away  stores  for  winter,  but  these  were  the 

^A  yournal  of  Voyages  and  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  North  America,  by- 
Daniel  Williams  HarmoJi,     A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

^  The  Life  and  Adventures  of  yames  P .  Beckwourth.     Harper  &  Bros. 


8o 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


A  Young  Cocopa. 

Photograph  by  Delancv  Gill. 


more  sedentary,  though  dried 
buffalo  meat,  and  pemmican, 
were  accumulated  as  far  as 
possible  by  the  tribes  living 
upon  the  plains.  But  when 
the  diet  of  a  people  is  con- 
fined to  meat  alone,  an  enor- 
mous supply,  per  capita,  is 
required  for  a  whole  winter, 
hence  some  tribes  ran  out  of 
provisions,  especially  when 
the  numbers  of  buffalo  began 
to  diminish,  and  were  in  hard 
straits  before  spring  came 
again.  The  fisher  tribes  put 
away  great  amounts  of  dried 
salmon,  but  here  again  was 
the  danger  of  shortage  that 
always  threatened  meat-eat- 
ers. The  same  might  be  true 
of  people  living  on  the  pro- 
ducts of  agriculture  if  the 
population  pressed  on  the 
supply,  but  with  agriculture 
the  returns  are  so  bountiful 
that  the  supply  was  always 
adequate  among  those  tribes 
cultivating  the  ground,  ex- 
cept there  was  a  failure  of 
crops,  which  was  rare.  The 
Puebloans  provided  against 
this  by  retaining  a  consider- 
able extra  store  from  year  to 
year.  They  used  the  lower 
inside  rooms  of  the  village 
which  were  much  like  cellars, 
as  the  village,  resembling  a 
pile  of  huge  packing   cases, 


The  Cache  8i 

was  built  over  and  around  them.  Thus  they  were  admirably 
adapted  for  storage  in  that  dry  climate.  The  ears  of  corn 
were  piled  up  evenly  and  neatly  one  beside  the  other.  Water- 
melons were  treated  in  the  same  way,  and  were  preserved  in 
perfect  condition  till  the  end  of  February  at  least.  Naturally 
the  tribes  which  moved  about  considerably  could  not  well 
make  such  ample  provision  for  the  future,  but  they  often 
stored  food,  and  other  goods  in  holes  dug  in  the  ground,  well 
concealed.  Such  storage  places  were  also  used  by  the  whites, 
and  the  name  cache  was  applied  to  this  method  by  the  early 


Rear  View  of  Mandan  Village,  Showing  BurialrGround. 

Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  48,  vol.  i.,  Catlin's  Eight  Years.     Reproduction  from 
Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  li. 


French  trappers.  Where  the  cac/ie  was  in  dry  ground  the 
contents  would  remain  in  good  preservation  for  a  long  time. 

It  is  plain  that  the  people  of  the  Wilderness  possessed  every- 
where an  abundant  food  supply,  whether  in  the  arid  South- 
west, where  at  first  glance  it  would  seem  no  cereal  could  grow, 
in  the  buffalo  country,  or  in  the  region  of  the  salmpn  streams. 
It  was  the  preservation  of  these  supplies,  over-abundant  at  cer- 
tain times,  scarce  at  others,  which  was  their  greatest  difficulty. 

With  us  the  unit  of  our  social  organisation  is  the  family: 

6 


82  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

father,  mother,  children.  With  the  Amerind  the  unit  was  gener- 
ally the  clan  (or  gens)  as  we  call  it,  a  group  of  several  families 
related  on  the  mother's  side,  for  descent  was  usually  counted 
in  the  female  line.  The  Omahas  and  some  others  had  changed 
to  descent  in  the  male  line.  The  clan  held  property  in  com- 
mon exactly  as  one  of  our  families  does  to-day;  that  is  not  all 
property,  but  general  property  and  food.  There  were  articles 
and  objects  which  were  exclusively  individual  property  and 
did  not  belong  to  the  clan  any  more  than  certain  articles  a 
daughter  or  a  son  may  individually  possess  belong  to  the 
parents  in  one  of  our  families.  Hunting,  farming,  and  such 
affairs  were  conducted,  as  a  rule,  for  the  clan,  hence  food  was 
clan  property  free  to  all  members,  or  for  that  matter  to  almost 
any  one,  because  in  the  Amerind  village,  or  camp,  every  house 
was  open  to  the  hungry  guest.  The  white  man  was  always 
fed  as  well  as  the  supplies  would  permit ;  special  stews  of  dog, 
or  buffalo,  or  succotash,  were  prepared  for  his  special  delecta- 
tion, and  he  was  expected  to  eat  all  given  him  or  take  it  away. 
To  these  people,  therefore,  it  was  a  rather  painful  surprise 
when,  as  they  began  to  unravel  the  peculiarities  of  their  new 
acquaintances,  they  found  that  the  white  man  was  perfectly 
willing  to  accept  the  boundless  hospitality  of  the  native,  but 
when  the  latter  visited  fort  or  camp,  he  was  received  as  a  beg- 
gar. When  the  hospitality  he  expected  was  not  granted,  he 
asked  for  it ;  and  this,  to  a  white  man,  was  begging.  In  deal- 
ing  with  Amerinds  the  white  man  went  on  the  principle  of 
what  is  yours  is  mine  and  what  is  mine  is  my  own.  Perhaps 
there  were  two  exceptions  to  this,  the  early  French,  and  the 
great  Hudson  Bay  Company. 

Marriage  within  the  clan  was  forbidden,  therefore  a  man 
had  to  seek  a  wife  in  another  clan  or  another  tribe.  A  viola- 
tion of  this  rule,  or  of  any  other  moral  precept  of  their  code, 
brought  punishment  from  the  clan  of  the  individual  or  from 
the  officers  of  the  tribe.  Sometimes  this  was  nothing  more 
than  a  flogging;  sometimes  it  was  death.  A  man  always  re- 
tained  allegiance  to  his  own  clan  and  the  wife  to  her^,  the 
children  belonging  to  their  mother's  clan.  As  a  rule  there  was 
no  limit  to  the  number  of  wives  a  man  could  have,  though 


84 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


polygamy  was  not  general.  In  the  Amerind  code  the  bona 
fide  acceptance  of  a  wife  was  a  marriage,  and  the  husband  was 
expected  to  assume  the  duties  of  a  husband  seriously.  The 
white  adventurer  did  not  do  it.  He  was  quite  apt  to  abandon 
his  wife  as  cheerfully  as  he  had  taken  her. 


A  Uinta  Ute, 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Killers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

The  clan  had  the  right  to  adopt  into  it  any  outsider  it 
pleased,  and  this  right  of  adoption  was  frequently  exercised. 
In  this  manner  white,  or  other  prisoners,  or  friends,  were  in- 
corporated into  the  clan  and  therefore  into  the  tribe,  taking 
the  place  perhaps  of  some  deceased  son  or  brother,  daughter 
or  sister.  The  adopted  men  not  infrequently  rose  to  positions 
of  importance,  even  to  that  of  head  chief.     These  ofhcers  were 


Chiefs  and  Totems 


85 


usually  chosen  because  of  personal  qualifications  and  achieve- 
ments, but  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  title  of  ordinary  chief 
to  be  bestowed  on  a  visitor 
as  a  sort  of  honorary  de- 
gree. There  were  many 
chiefs  of  varying  power 
and  importance,  mostly 
military  ;  the  office  of 
sachem,  a  purely  civil  po- 
sition, was  more  difficult 
to  attain,  as  it  was  gen- 
erally hereditary  within 
the  clan.  Because  of  the 
law  of  maternal  descent, 
a  man's  son  in  most 
tribes  could  not  inherit 
his  father's  office.  He 
might  be  adopted,  how- 
ever, by  the  clan. 

Children  were  seldom 
whipped,  yet  they  were 
carefully  trained  and  were 
obedient  and  respectful. 
Their  parents  loved  them 
just  as  white  parents  love 
their  offspring  and  in  later 
days  when  the  Indian  Bu- 
reau compelled  the  chil- 
dren to  attend  the  agency 
schools,  there  was  many  a 
heart  pang  and  copious 
tears  all  round  at  the  part- 
ing. But  the  usual  theory 
was  that  these  people  had 
no  human  sensibility. 

Several    families    of   a 
clan   often    occupied  a   single 
sign,  a   sort  of  coat  of   arms, 


Umatilla  Woman  and  Child. 

From  Wonderland,  1904 — Northern  Pacific 

Railway. 

structure.      Each  clan   had   a 
called   a   totem,  to   represent 


86 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


it,  and  this  was  often  used  as  a  signature.  Combined  with 
other  pictures  it  indicated  the  occurrence  of  certain  events. 
It  was  generally  an  animal  from  which  in  far  past  times  the 
clan  was  supposed  to  be  descended;  but  there  were  also  per- 
sonal totems.  The  clan  took  its  name  from  its  totem,  Bear, 
Hawk,  etc.,  and  its  members  frequently  held  names  which 
indicated  their  clan  title.  The  clan  controlled  its  members, 
settled  disputes,   and  if   one   were   murdered   or   committed 


Mandan  Village  on  the  Missouri,  1832. 

Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  47,  vol.  i..  Catlin's  Eight  Years.     Reproduction  from 

Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  ii. 

murder,  the  clan  prescribed  or  accepted  punishment  or  settle- 
ment as  the  case  might  be.  It  also  argued  its  case  when 
necessary  by  means  of  representatives  before  the  council  of  the 
tribe.  To  know  a  tribe  well  it  was  important  to  know  the 
workings  of  the  clan  system,  yet  this  has  generally  been  over- 
looked by  all  but  the  ethnologists.  A  tribe  was  usually 
spoken  of  by  its  members  as  *'the  men"  or  "the  people,"  and 
these  terms  were  often  understood  by  white  men  to  be  the 
names  of  the  tribes,  and  accordingly  were  so  used. 


I 


88  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

When  at  peace  these  people  were  kind.  The  Rev. 
Samuel  Parker  who  was  on  the  plains  at  a  very  early  time, 
referring  to  some  who  accompanied  him  declares:  "They 
are  very  kind  and  manifest  their  kindness  by  anticipating 
all,  and  more  than  all  my  wants."  Harmon,  who  for  nine- 
teen years  was  a  leading  member  of  the  North-west  Com- 
pany, speaking  of  one  village  where  he  passed  several  days, 
is  sure  he  was  treated  "  with  more  real  politeness  than  is 
commonly  shown  to  strangers  in  the  civilised  part  of  the 
world." 

The  general  dress  of  the  men  was  leggins  of  buckskin  re- 
sembling the  legs  of  a  pair  of  white  man's  trousers,  attached 
to  a  belt,  with  frequently  a  shirt  of  the  same  material,  though 
a  great  deal  of  the  time  there  was  no  covering  for  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  except  a  robe  or  blanket  thrown  loosely 
around  the  shoulders.  The  remainder  of  the  costume  was  a 
breech  cloth  and  moccasins  of  buckskin,  the  latter  with  or 
without  hard  soles  according  to  the  tribe.  In  the  South-west, 
particularly  after  the  Spaniards  came,  the  costume  was  differ- 
ent. There  leggins  came  only  to  the  knee,  and  were  made  to 
button,  or  were  attached  by  a  woven  garter  twisted  around 
just  under  the  knee.  Above  there  were  short  trousers,  or 
rather  breeches  of  cotton.  A  cotton  shirt  with  a  blanket  over 
it  in  cool  weather,  and  a  cloth  a  la  turban  around  the  head 
completed  the  dress.  No  matter  if  an  Amerind  wears  trousers 
as  he  often  did  and  does,  he  rarely  dispenses  with  the  breech 
cloth.  In  battle  the  warrior  stripped  completely,  though  in 
past  times  some  tribes  wore  armour  of  slats,  rods,  or  tough 
buffalo  hide. 

The  woman's  dress  was  a  loose  gown  or  tunic  of  buckskin, 
of  woollen  or  of  cotton  fabric,  bound  at  the  waist  by  a  girdle, 
and,  when  travelling  or  in  ceremonials,  moccasins  with  leggins 
attached,  the  latter  buckskin  strips  winding  round  and  round 
the  leg.  In  the  house  or  about  the  village  or  camp  the  women 
generally  went  without  any  covering  on  the  feet.  The  women 
of  some  tribes  wore  only  a  sort  of  kilt  of  bark  strips.  The 
younger  children  in  summer  wore  no  clothing;  and  in  some 
tribes,  particularly  those  of  the  mild  South-west,  neither  men, 


The  Travois  89 

women,  nor  children  troubled  themselves  about  covering. 
The  manner  of  wearing  the  hair  was  always  significant ;  caps 
and  head-dresses  were  also  worn. 

In  moving  camp  the  plains  tribes  usually  took  their  whole 
tent  with  them,  the  poles,  before  they  had  the  horse,  being 
tied  on  each  side  of  their  dogs  by  means  of  a  sort  of  sad- 
dle made  for  the  purpose.  Moving  was  far  easier  after 
the  horse  arrived,  for  not  only  could  he  pull  the  poles  of  the 
tent  tied  to  his  back,  but  also  upon  them  he  could  drag  the 
children,  the  tent  cover,  and  the  general  household  goods; 
furthermore,  the  mother  could  ride  on  the  horse.  The  travois 
was,  therefore,  a  different  affair  with  the  horse  to  drag  it 
than  it  was  with  the  dog;  but  they  did  not  abandon  utilising 
the  dogs  and  they  were  often  harnessed  to  light  loads  on 
the  poles.  The  horse,  then,  was  not  only  an  essential  in  war 
and  the  chase,  but  also  in  the  journeys  from  one  locality  to 
another. 

They  knew  well  their  own  land  and  its  limits.  We  some- 
times forget  this.  Francis  La  Flesche,  an  educated  Dakota, 
writes  with  reference  to  their  knowledge: 

"The  white  people  speak  of  the  country  at  this  period  as  a 
wilderness  as  though  it  was  an  empty  tract  without  human  interest 
or  history.  To  us  Indians  it  was  as  clearly  defined  then  as  it  is  to- 
day; we  knew  the  boundaries  of  tribal  lands,  those  of  our  friends 
and  those  of  our  foes,  we  were  familiar  with  every  stream,  the  con- 
tour of  every  hill,  and  each  peculiar  feature  of  the  landscape  had  its 
tradition.  It  was  our  home,  the  scene  of  our  history  and  we  loved 
it  as  our  country,"  ' 

Tabbaquena,  a  head  chief  of  the  Comanches  whom  Gregg 
interviewed,  drew  for  him  a  map,  with  paper  and  pencil,  and 
"although  the  draft  was  somewhat  rough  it  bore  much  to  our 
astonishment,  quite  a  map-like  appearance,  with  a  far  more 
accurate  delineation  of  all  the  principal  rivers  of  the  plains, 
the  road  from  Missouri  to  Santa  F^  and  the  different  Mexican 
settlements  than  is  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  engraved  maps 

1  The  Middle  Five. 


90 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


of  those  regions."  Pike  and  other  early  explorers  might  have 
saved  themselves  vast  trouble  had  they  employed  such  a  man 
to  accompany  them.  This  was  not  always  easy,  however,  for 
sometimes  when  the  native  was  perfectly  willing  to  draw  a 
map,  or  otherwise  describe  a  route,  nothing  could  induce  him 
to  leave  his  people,  and  even  if  he  did  go,  he  would  frequently 

tire    of   his   job  and 
slip  away. 

In  all  the  history 
of  the  Wilderness 
only  one  explorer  has 
travelled  where  the 
modern  Amerind  did 
not  go  and  that  one 
was  Major  Powell 
when  he  descended 
the  Colorado.  The 
natives  of  his  time 
entered  the  various 
canyons  here  and 
there,  but  they  never 
remained  in  them 
or  navigated  their 
waters.  Long  years 
ago  clans  lived  with- 
in their  fastnesses  and 
n  r^,«    .^       r,  knew  them  well,  but 

Granary — Cliffs  of  Green  River.  ' 

Thirty  Feet  above  Ground.    Photograph  by  L.  H.  Johnson,  before     the     event  ful 

journey  of  Powell ' 
they  had  vanished.  As  winter  approached  those  tribes  that 
had  been  roving  during  the  mild  season  selected  for  the 
winter  comfortable  village  sites  near  wood  and  water  and  pre- 
pared for  a  long  stay.  Other  tribes  whose  general  village 
life    was   more    stationary   arranged    their    food    supply  and 

'  For  the  story  of  this  exploration  see  T/ie  Romance  of  the  Colorado  River,  by 
F.  S.  Dellenbaugh,  and  for  further  information  on  the  natives  of  the  Wilderness, 
see  The  North  Americans  of  Yesterday,  same  author,  and  The  Indian  of  To-day , 
by  George  Bird  Grinnell. 


92  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

provided  for  stormy  weather.  If  the  shadow  of  famine 
did  not  fall  on  the  camp  time  passed  pleas*antly,  the  long 
evenings  being  devoted  to  visiting  from  tipi  (tepee)  to  tipi, 
or  from  house  to  house,  and  the  crisp  air  resounded  with 
merry  laughter,  shouts,  and  singing.  Games  of  different 
kinds  were  played,  and  certain  gifted  story  tellers  kept  their 
audiences  nightly  in  a  roar  with  vivid  tales — some  true, 
some  made  for  the  occasion  out  of  whole  cloth.  The 
Pueblos  practised  their  ceremonial  songs,  and  at  times  the 
boom  of  the  great  drum  quivered  constantly  on  the  evening 
air,  when  perhaps  no  other  sound  was  audible.  The  Pueblo 
adobe  and  stone  walls  being  thick  all  ordinary  sounds  were 
prevented  from  passing  out,  hence,  as  a  rule,  evening  closed 
in  silently,  particularly  in  winter  when  doors  were  shut 
against  the  cold.  This  was  more  the  case  after  the  whites 
came,  for  before  that  event  there  were  no  doors,  the  openings 
being  filled  by  blankets  or  skins.  The  doorways  then  were 
much  smaller,  to  exclude  cold  air,  storm,  animals,  enemies, 
and  this  gave  rise  to  stories  of  dwarfs,  that  have  from  time  to 
time  appeared. 

In  the  villages  where  the  walls  were  no  more  than  the  thick- 
ness of  the  buffalo-hide  covering  the  tipi  poles,  the  hilarity 
rang  out  and  made  the  locality  extremely  gay.  The  popular 
notion  that  these  people  were  gloomy  and  fierce  in  daily  life  is 
a  delusion.  They  were  as  happy  and  full  of  larks  as  children, 
and  probably  no  people  ever  more  appreciated  a  joke.  A 
little  thing  would  sometimes  cause  great  merriment.  I  re- 
member on  one  occasion,  a  good  many  years  ago,  when  en- 
camped near  Fort  Defiance,  I  was  standing  one  evening  in 
front  of  my  tent  when  an  old  Navajo  was  seen  approaching 
who  was  particularly  afraid  of  a  camera.  I  had  in  my  hand  a 
small  hand  camera,  and  as  a  joke  I  ran  toward  him  pointing 
it  as  if  to  photograph  him,  although  the  light  had  nearly  van- 
ished and  a  negative  could  not  have  been  made  except  by  very 
long  exposure.  The  Navajo  did  not  know  this  and  much  to 
the  amusement  of  his  compatriots  who  were  standing  around 
to  the  number  of  perhaps  a  score,  he  began  to  dodge  about  in 
the  wildest  fashion,  trying  to  avoid  my  advance.     For  some 


A  Jolly  People 


93 


moments  I  kept  up  the  play,  because  they  were  all  having 
such  a  jolly  time  except  the  victim;  and  he  did  not  seem 
seriously  to  mind  the  chase.  Apropos  of  this  subject,  Fowler,' 
when  crossing  the  plains  met  with  an  incident,  also  illustrative 
of  their  appreciation  of  fun.  He  wore  spectacles  and  had 
broken  one  of  the  glasses.  One  day  while  at  a  native  settle- 
ment, he  felt  some  one  steal  the  spectacles  from  his  eyes  and 
run  away  with  them.  He 
thought  they  were  lost  for 
good,  but  presently  he  heard 
a  great  uproar  of  shouts  and 
laughter,  and  then  saw  the 
man  who  had  taken  them  ad- 
vancing and  leading  another 
with  the  "specs"  on  his 
face.  On  closer  approach 
Fowler  saw  that  the  led 
person  was  blind  in  the  eye 
corresponding  to  the  broken 
glass;  and  the  joker  signified 
that  the  "specs"  suited  his 
friend  much  better  than  they 
did  Fowler.  Then  amidst 
great  good  humour  they 
were  returned  to  him. 

In  some  portions  of  the 
South-west,  cotton  was  cul- 
tivated and  woven  into  blankets  and  garments  long  before 
the  white  man  came.  The  Pueblo  men  did  the  weaving 
in  that  division ;  among  some  tribes  the  women  did  it.  The 
loom  was  a  simple  affair,  made  of  a  couple  of  slender  logs, 
or  thick  boughs,  and  several  sticks  with  an  arrangement  of 
cords.  It  is  still  in  use  by  the  Navajo  and  the  Moki  people. 
Among  the  Moki  the  men  set  up  the  loom  in  the  kiva,  a  sort 
of  club  room  entirely  devoted  to  the  men,  whereas  among 
the  Navajo,  women  usually  weave  under  a  flimsy  shelter  of 
boughs.       The   Navajo  builds  no  substantial  house,  because 

"^  Jourtial  of  Jacob  Fowler,  edited  by  Elliott  Coues. 


....-.-'• 


Sitting  Bull. 

From  Wonderland,  igoi — Northern 

Pacific  Railway. 


^4 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


he  will  never  live  in  a  structure  in  which  any  one  has  died. 
Probably  some  such  idea  retarded  many  tribes  from  building 
more  permanently. 

It  was  a  sorry  day  when  the  trader  brought  them  alco- 
hol. By  its  use  tribes  were  degraded,  swindled,  beggared. 
Occasionally  some  energetic  chief  would  raise  an  objection, 
even  to  the  point   of   a   fight  with  his  people,   but    it   was 


Bellochknahpick— The  Bull  Dance. 

Mandan  Ceremonial.      Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  67.  vol.  i.,  Catlin's  Eight  Years. 
Reproduction  from  Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  li. 


like  a  man  raising 
whites  wanted  the 
them  for  nothing. 
Porcupine  Bear,  a 
that  he  and  a  broth 
was  overruled,  and 
to  count  that  time, 
not  excepting  the  n 
poured  tallow  into 


his  hand  to  halt  the  north  wind.  The 
goods  the  native  had,  and  they  wanted 
Alcohol  and  water  were  next  to  nothing. 
Cheyenne,  once  protested  so  vigorously 
er  chief  came  near  to  mortal  combat.  He 
like  Rip  Van  Winkle,  they  all  agreed  not 

Very  soon  every  one  was  full  of  whiskey, 
oble  Porcupine  Bear  himself.  The  traders 
the  bottom  of  the  measuring  cup  so  that 


Population 


95 


it  should  hold  less  than  the  stipulated  amount,  also  putting 
thumbs  and  fingers  in  to  cunningly  accomplish  the  same  cheat. 
As  to  population,  it  is  difficult  to  form  an  exact  estimate. 
Undoubtedly  in  early  times  the  number  of  natives  in  the 
region  forming  the  United  States  \yas  exaggerated;  the  tend- 
ency now  appears  rather  to  go  to  the  other  extreme.  The 
dwellings  having  been  mostly  of  perishable  materials  there  is 


Details  of  Navajo  Loom  Construction. 

U.  S.  Bu.  Eth. 

little  to  indicate  former  population  outside  of  the  mounds  of 
the  Mississippi  valley,  and  the  house  ruins  of  the  South-west. 
The  latter  are  so  numerous  as  to  testify  either  to  residence  for 
an  immense  period  or  to  a  population  of  considerable  size.  It 
was  probably  both.  While  these  village  sites  were  often  only 
repetitions  by  the  same  people  at  different  times,  yet  there  are 
so  many  of  them  that  there  must  also  have  been  a  goodly 


OF  THE     ^ 


A  Navajo. 
Photograph  by  J.  K.  Killers.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


q6 


Epidemics 


97 


number  of  clans  and  tribes.  Whole  areas,  like  the  region  lying 
immediately  north  of  the  Colorado  River,  exhibit  multitudinous 
remains,  but,  when  white  men  first  went  there,  only  a  few 
scattered  bands  of  Pai  Utes  were  found,  who  built  nothing 
but  brush  wickiups. 

The  time  when  the  others  expired  has  never  been  even  ap- 
proximately established.    It  may  have  been  one,  two,  three,  any 


i**' 


Scalp-Dance  of  the  Sioux. 

Drawing  by  Catlin,  plate  297,  vol.  ii.,  Catlin's  Eight  Years.     Reproduction  from 

Smithsonian  Report,  1885,  part  ii. 


number  of  centuries  before  our  occupation.  In  that  climate  a 
house  ruin  might  endure  ages  with  hardly  a  noticeable  change. 
But  there  are  certain  points  leading  to  the  belief  that  some  of 
the  depopulating  was  of  sudden  occurrence,  and  as  diseases 
brought  by  the  Europeans  early  spread  from  Mexico,  and  as 
sedentary  people  closely  grouped  would  suffer  even  more  than 
tribes  living  in  open  camps,  it  appears  reasonable  to  assume 
that  smallpox  and  kindred  diseases  ravaged  the  whole  Wilder- 
ness soon  after  the  landing  of  Cortez,  and  were  particularly 


The  Remnant 


99 


disastrous  in  the  South-west.  Nothing  in  the  shape  of  skele- 
tons would  remain  to  tell  the  tales  of  destruction,  because 
wolves  and  dogs  would  devour  the  bodies  and  scatter  the 
bones.  As  they  will  dig  a  body  out  of  a  grave  and  strew  the 
bones  far  and  wide,  dragging  one  from  a  house  would  be 
simple.  When  the  smallpox  finally  swept  through  the  plains 
tribes,  in  historical  time,  they  were  wofully  reduced  in  num- 
bers. Many  killed  themselves  to  avoid  the  lingering  horrors. 
Whole     tribes  ••'   .  ..  ^' 

were  extermi- 
nated, and  the 
wolves  and 
dogs  con- 
sumed the 
putrid  car- 
casses.' 

Probably 
there  was 
never  a  dense 
population, 
yet  there 
might  have 
been,  say, 
three  or  four 
hundred  thou- 
sand all  told, 
in  the  Wilder- 
ness. This,  with  perhaps,  six  or  seven  hundred  thousand 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  would  give  a  total  aboriginal  popula- 
tion for  the  area  of  the  United  States  'of  about  a  million. ^ 
The  estimate  of  Major  Powell  was  under  three-quarters  of  a 
million.  A  quarter  of  a  million  are  left,  and  they  are  not  de- 
creasing, for  though  they  are  very  poor  as  a  rule,  owing  to  the 
destruction  of  their  game  and  other  food  supplies  and  to  their 
having  no  means  of  earning  money,  yet  contagion  no  longer 

^  See  Voyages  to  the  Arctic,  by  Alexander  Mackenzie,  vol.  i.,  p.  xxxviii.,  and 
other  early  travellers  in  the  West. 
'•*  Catlin  estimated  16,000,000. 


Necklace  of  Human  Fingers. 


loo  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

destroys  them  as  of  old,  and  wars  are  a  thing  of  the  past. 
They  are  now,  however,  a  different  people  from  those  occupy- 
ing the  country  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

To  their  enemies  they  were  often  horribly  cruel,  to  those 
of  their  own  hue  as  well  as  those  who  were  white.  And  they 
learned  speedily  that  the  white  man  was  much  the  same  as 
themselves  in  this  regard.  They  no  longer  burn  victims  at  the 
stake,  but  the  white  man  who,  in  the  earliest  time  gave  them 
fearful  lessons  in  this  art,  still  continues  it ;  even  within  sight 
of  our  temples  of  justice.  Their  wars  were  multiplied  by  the 
compression  of  their  free  territory,  which  was  the  result  of  the 
white  man's  arrival,  and  by  the  impositions  of  the  newcomers. 
There  was  one  locality,  a  strip  lying  along  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,- which  appears  to  have  been  a  sort  of  No 
Man's  Land,  and  this  was  called  the  "Hostile  Ground,"  and 
the  "War  Road."  Any  one  wandering  in  this  tract  was  always 
in  danger  of  attack  from  many  directions. 

If  a  war  party  met  with  failure  it  'would  try  to  recover  its 
prestige  by  attacking  whatever  came  in  its  way,  but  if  it  were 
successful,  all  but  the  enemy  it  had  originally  proceeded  against 
were  comparatively  safe. 

A  successful  band  reaching  the  borders  of  its  home  camp 
would  send  a  runner  in  with  the  announcement,  when  the 
people  would  turn  out  to  form  a  triumphal  procession,  and 
the  braves  decked  themselves  out  in  war-bonnets,  war-shirts, 
etc.,  kept  for  such  parades.  One  with  his  face  blackened  car- 
ried a  long  pole  from  which  the  bloody  scalp-trophies  dangled, 
and  these  were  saluted  with  shouts  of  joy.  At  the  same  time 
they  were  reviled  as  enemies.  This  pole  was  planted  in  front 
of  the  lodge  of  the  head  chief,  where  later  the  scalp-dance  and 
other  ceremonies  were  performed.  Many  tribes  removed  all 
their  hair  but  a  solitary  lock,  called  the  scalp-lock  in  conse- 
quence, left  for  the  benefit  of  the  enemy.  The  number  of 
scalps  a  warrior  could  boast  was  the  gauge  of  his  military  im- 
portance in  the  tribe.  But  when  the  war  party  returned  in 
defeat,  the  camp  became  a  pandemonium  of  wailing,  and 
moaning,  and  gnashing  of  teeth.  Women  chopped  off  fingers 
by  way  of  mourning;  tore  their  flesh;  and  braves  also  shock- 


Drifting 


lOI 


ingly  mutilated  themselves.     Then  nothing  short  of  a  success 
in  war  could  wash  out  the  disgrace. 

One  hardly  can  believe  that  a  large  number  of  these  people 
once  had  their  villages  and  their  farms  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
where  the  factory  and  the  mowing-machine  now  hold  sway, 
but  in  the  South-west  wherever  we  tread  we  discover  some  in- 
dication of  the  old  population  :  a  trail,  an  irrigating  ditch,  a 
tree  for  a  ladder,  house  walls,  rock  pictures,  etc.,  and  often, 
far  from  the  tumult  of  the  modern  world,  we  seem  almost  to 


House  Ruin  on  Green  River,  Utah. 
Photograph  by  L.  H.  Johnson.  . 


catch  the  sigh  of  a  voice,  or  the  rustle  of  a  blanket,  in  the 
breeze  that  whispers  through  the  old  pifion  tree.  On  the  East 
Mesa  of  the  Mokis  we  appear  to  command  a  clear  perspective, 
for  the  modern  world  is  not  evident.  I  always  seemed  there  to 
be  far  out  of  it.  Through  their  windows  we  can  well  see  into 
the  past  and  reconstruct  the  wilderness.  Sitting  on  the  house- 
top at  the  day's  end,  the  surf  of  our  restless  civilisation  beat- 
ing against  the  far  horizon,  the  vanished  sun  burnishing  with  a 
wondrous  spread  of  gold  the  whole  high  vault  of  the  Arizona 
sky,  we  drowsily  follow  the  fading  light  as  it  dissolves  in  a 
sea-like  mist  the  plains  so  far  below,  till  they  no  longer  have 


I02  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

being  but  float  from  its  firm  moorings,  the  great  headland — 
villages,  rocks,  and  all — drifting  it  backward  through  phantas- 
mal centuries.  And  out  of  the  strange  houses  around  us, 
where  the  mothers  sing  their  lullabies,  arise  the  forgotten 
hosts  of  other  days,  with  the  cry  of  the  chase  and  the  clash  of 
battle,  as  if  like  Don  Roderick  we  had  unlocked  the  fateful 
gates  of  the  Forbidden  Tower  and  were  about  to  be  over- 
whelmed. Suddenly,  amidst  the  turmoil  of  that  ancient 
throng  we  discover  a  greater  commotion.  It  is  the  European 
with  his  hand  of  iron,  shooting  as  he  marches,  while  through 
the  smoke  of  his  gun  rises,  like  the  Spectre  of  the  Brocken,  a 
hideous  companion  he  does  not  see.  It  is  the  dismal  Shadow 
of  Death,  smiting  right  and  left;  and  they  walk  on  together, 
ever  over  corpses. 


CHAPTER   VI 


Lost  in  the  Wilderness — Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Great  Medicine  Man — The  Wilderness 
Travers  d — Spanish  Slave  Hunters — The  Northern  Mystery — The  Monk  and 
the  Negro — The  Great  Coronado  Expedition — The  Settlement  of  New  Mexico 
and  the  Pueblo  Rebellion — California  Missions — Escalante  toSalt  Lake  Valley. 

AS  the  harmless  Httle  snow-birds  flit  before  the  advance  of 
winter's  desolation,  so  a  few  hapless  Spaniards  cast  up 
by  the  sea  were  forerunners  in  the  Wilderness  of  the  pressing 
swarms  of  Europe.  These  men  were  a  small  remnant  of  the 
expedition  which  Panfilo  de  Narvaez  in  1527  led  with  rosy 
banners  for  the  conquest  of  Florida,  where  a  few  years  before 
Ponce  de  Leon,  instead  of  his  sought-for  waters  of  perpetual 
youth,  had  found  a  shroud.  Three  years  had  barely  passed 
when  the  same  grave-garment  was  enwrapping  Narvaez  and  his 
band,  twining  through  one  disaster  after  another,  till  the  lonely, 
shimmering  sea  offered  the  only  pathway  from  under  the  dark 
presence.  Then  it  was  a  kingdom  for  a  boat !  Yet  the  stag- 
gering band  had  no  tools,  nails,  cordage,  skill ;  nothing  in  fact 
wherewith  to  prepare  for  the  combat  with  Neptune.  But  the 
resolution  of  despair  is  great.  They  gathered  spurs,  bridle 
bits,  all  the  iron  they  had,  and  made  tools  and  nails.  Spanish 
accoutrements  were  ever  elaborate,  so  they  were  able  to  put 
their  boats  firmly  together,  and  with  shirts  sewed  one  to  an- 
other for  sails,  and  their  muscles  fortified  by  the  meat  of  the 
horses  which  they  had  eaten,  whose  manes  and  tales  furnished 
ropes,  at  last  in  five  large  boats  they  coasted  westward  hoping 
valiantly  to  sight  some  camp,   or  settlement,  of  their  fellow 

103 


104  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

countrymen  who,  from  the  capital  of  the  Aztecs,  had  been 
striving  to  penetrate  the  Northern  Mystery/ 

Seven  or  eight  years  only,  it  is  true,  had  passed  since  this 
same  luckless  leader  so  ignominiously  had  failed  in  his  errand 
from  Cuba  to  arrest  Cortez,  but  the  Spaniards,  besides  annihi- 
lating the  Mexican  Confederacy,  had  founded  some  settlements 
towards  the  north,  and  it  was  these,  their  knowledge  of  dis- 
tance being  necessarily  hazy,  that  the  unfortunates  expected 
to  reach.  After  many  days  of  weary  toil  and  suffering,  they 
passed  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  which  Pineda,  about 
twenty  years  earlier,  had  discovered  and  named  the  Rio  de 
Espiritu  Santo.  No  Holy  Spirit  was  it  to  these  baffled  way- 
farers, for  its  strong  current  brought  confusion  and  separation. 
The  boat  of  Narvaez  reached  land,  the  fate  of  two  is  not  men- 
tioned, while  the  remaining  two,  one  of  which  was  commanded 
by  Alvar  Nufiez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  who  had  filled  the  once  im- 
portant office  of  treasurer  to  the  expedition,  drifted  away  to- 
gether. After  several  days  a  storm  threw  these  apart  also  and 
each  was  driven  along  haphazard,  yet  always  keeping  towards 
the  land.  Cabeza's  craft  finally  beached  itself  on  the  wide 
sandy  shores  of  an  island,  called  by  those  who  eluded  the 
breakers  the  island  of  ill-luck,  Malhado. 

Here  were  natives  who  treated  the  castaways  in  a  friendly 
way,  and  their  fortunes  seemed  to  slightly  brighten  ;  it  was  but 
a  rift  in  the  cloud.  Attempting  to  proceed,  their  boat  was 
capsized  in  the  surf,  and  disappeared  on  the  wide  bosom  of 
the  Gulf.  After  a  few  days  some  men  from  one  of  the  other 
boats,  which  had  been  thrown  on  another  part  of  the  island, 
joined  Cabeza's  party,  raising  the  total  number  to  forty.  It 
was  now  November  of  1530,  and  here  begins  the  remarkable 
experience  which  Cabeza  de  Vaca  afterwards  wrote  down  as 
well  as  he  could  remember  it.  The  account  is  vague  in  its 
details,  giving  rise  among  eminent  students  to  a  number  of 
different  opinions,  as  to  Cabeza's  exact  route. ^      The  island 

^  A  valuable,  handy  volume  on  the  early  doings  of  the  Spaniards  is  Pioneer 
Spaniards  in  North  America^  by  William  Henry  Johnson.  See  also  The  Discov- 
ery of  America,  by  John  Fiske. 

'?iQQ  Relation  of  Alvar   Nunez   Cabeza   de  Vaca,  translation   by  Buckinghami 


^.s 


a 

CO 


io6  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

i 

Malhado  was  either  Galveston  or  some  other  along  the  north 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  between  this  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi.     Bandelier  places  it  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sabine. 

It  was  decided  to  send  out  a  search  party,  and  four  men 
were  therefore  dispatched  on  the  hunt  for  the  settlements. 
Soon  after  some  disease  broke  out  in  the  camp  which  reduced 
the  thirty-six  to  fifteen.  Then  the  natives,  who  were  not 
otherwise  unkind,  separated  these  and  they  never  again  all 
met.  When  spring  once  more  turned  the  country  green,  all 
the  Spaniards  but  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  one  Lope  de  Oviedo, 
who  were  too  sick  to  travel,  again  started  westward.  Cabeza 
and  Oveido  necessarily  remained  with  the  natives,  and  in  spite 
of  Cabeza's  tale  of  cruelty  we  can  see  that  he  was  not  very 
badly  treated,  for  after  awhile  he  was  allowed  to  make  trading 
tours  into  the  interior.  On  these  journeys  he  saw  the  "hunch- 
back cows"  and  learned  much  about  the  country,  the  first 
white  man  to  tread  that  northern  soil.  In  the  course  of  time 
he  and  Oviedo  turned  their  faces  westward  also  and  presently 
learned  from  other  natives  of  three  men  like  themselves  farther 
on.  Oviedo  lacked  the  courage  to  proceed,  and  he  went  back 
to  the  first  natives  they  had  been  with  while  Cabeza  kept  on 
alone  and  came  to  the  other  Spaniards,  the  fag-end  of  the 
company  that  had  previously  started.  They  were  Andreas 
Dorantes,  Alonso  del  Castillo  Maldonado,  and  Estevan,  an 
Arab  negro. 

The  Amerinds  they  were  now  among  did  not  seem  to  like 
the  idea  of  their  departing,  but  after  one  or  two  attempts,  the 
four  succeeded  in  taking  up  the  broken  march  for  the  West. 
The  tribes  they  met  treated  them  kindly.  In  one  place  a 
man  came  with  a  headache  which  Castillo  cured  by  making 
the  sign  of  the  cross  and  "commending  him  to  God."  Many 
more  came  to  be  healed,  each  bringing  venison  in  payment,  and 
the  Spaniards  found  thereby  the  road  to  safety  and  comfort 
as  well  as  to  their  desired  goal.     Cabeza  even  claims  to  have 

Smith.  Contributions  to  the  History  of  the  South-western  Portion  of  the  U.  S.,  by 
A.  F.  Bandelier.  "  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,"  by  Brownie  Ponton  and  Bates 
H.  McFarland,  in  the  Quarterly  of  the  Texas  State  Historical  Society  (January, 
1898). 


Great  Medicine  Man  107 

revived  the  dead;  at  least  he  became  so  proficient  as  a  "medi- 
cine man  "  that  everywhere  the  natives  came  to  him  in  large 
numbers  to  be  healed.  Cabeza  was  successful,  hence  his  pro- 
gress was  uninterrupted,  but  the  role  of  medicine  man  is  some- 
times dangerous  to  assume.  They  think  that  if  one  is  able  to 
cure  a  single  case,  that  he  can  cure  all,  and  if  the  patient  dies 
his  "medicine  "  is  bad.  The  reputation  of  Cabeza  grew,  till  the 
progress  of  the  four  wanderers  was  little  short  of  triumphal. 

Without  presenting  further  details  of  this  first  traverse  by 
white  men  of  a  part  of  the  Wilderness,  it  may  be  stated  that 
after  passing  some  mountains,  a  beautiful  river,  some  rough 
dry  country,  many  sorts  of  people,  and  divers  languages, 
through  fixed  habitations  and  cultivated  fields,  they  arrived 
at  a  place  where  the  people  presented  them  with  a  great  many 
hearts  of  deer.  In  consequence  they  named  the  spot,  Valle  de 
los  Corazones,  and  it  figured  conspicuously  in  the  explorations 
that  were  to  follow.  It  was  the  "entrance  to  the  South  Sea," 
that  is,  it  was  here  they  first  came  to  waters  flowing  into  the 
Pacific,  via  the  Gulf  of  California;  where,  in  fact,  they  crossed 
the  great  divide  of  the  Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico.  The  river 
they  reached  was  the  Yaqui.  Here,  too,  they  beheld  the 
first  signal  of  nearing  their  countrymen  in  the  shape  of  a 
metallic  buckle,  of  Spanish  make,  while  the  natives  described 
white  men  with  beards,  of  whom,  with  good  cause,  they  were 
much  afraid.  The  Spaniards  were  slave  hunters.  A  few 
days  later  Cabeza,  who  with  Dorantes  and  Maldonado  re- 
sembled white  men  no  more  than  did  the  negro  Estevan,  met 
Spaniards  on  horseback.  They  were  Captain  Alcaraz  and 
several  of  his  slave-hunting  gang.  The  captain  tried  to  use 
Cabeza  as  a  decoy,  but  he  was  not  successful.  Cabeza  spread 
a  warning  and  his  Amerind  friends  made  their  escape  much 
to  the  wrath  of  the  captain,  who  thereupon  treated  them  all 
badly,  and  prevented  their  advance.  At  last,  however,  the 
four  were  sent  on  to  the  settlement  of  San  Miguel  de  Culiacan, 
where  they  fell  in  with  that  brave  and  sensible  ofificer,  Melchior 
Diaz,  and  their  troubles  were  at  an  end. 

These  wanderings,  so  briefly  outlined,  beginning  at  the 
landing  on  Malhado,  and  terminating  at  Culiacan,  covered  a 


io8  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

• 

space  of  a  little  over  five  years.  The  time  of  the  continuous 
journey  toward  the  Pacific  Coast  was  about  ten  months.  The 
Narvaez  expedition  broke  up  at  the  end  of  1530.  Cabeza 
started  about  August,  1535,  for  Mexico,  and  arrived  among 
the  Spaniards  early  in  1536.  His  general  route  was  across  the 
southern  part  of  Texas  to  the  Rio  Grande,  then  perhaps  some 
distance  up  that  stream,  and  across  to  the  great  central  moun- 
tain range  of  Mexico.  Bandelier  traces  the  route  up  the 
Conchas  and  over  the  pass  of  Mulatos,  but  it  may  have  been, 
and  I  believe  was,  more  to  the  northward. 

A  brilliant  picture  was  now  painted  for  the  Spanish  people 
by  the  returned  wanderers,  particularly  by  the  negro  Estevan, 
who  had  been  specially  active  in  securing  information  on  the 
journey,  for  Cabeza  says  he  "was  in  constant  conversation 
with  them  (the  natives),  he  informed  himself  about  the  ways 
we  wished  to  take,  of  the  towns  that  there  were,  and  con- 
cerning the  things  of  which  we  desired  to  know."  '  That  is, 
Estevan  practically  made  hirnself  the  guide  of  the  party  while 
the  others  attended  to  the  "medicine"  business,  hence  he 
could  tell  a  longer  story  about  the  "populous  towns"  of  which 
the  people  had  spoken.  Much  was  made  of  these  "great" 
towns  where  emeralds  were  dug  out  of  the  mountains,  and  it 
all  appeared  to  confirm  earlier  rumours  of  Seven  Cities  of 
fabulous  wealth  somewhere  in  the  midst  of  the  Northern 
Mystery.  The  fate  of  Narvaez  was  now  forgotten  in  the  in- 
toxicating dream  of  a  country  rivalling  the  riches  of  the  Aztecs. 

There  is  some  confusion  as  to  one  or  two  minor  expeditions 
then  sent  northwards;  evidently  they  did  not  proceed  far. 
But  in  1539  Viceroy  Mendoza  directed  Friar  Marcos  of  Niza 
to  march  under  the  guidance  of  Estevan  and  reconnoitre,  with 
a  view  of  following  this  reconnaissance  by  an  elaborate  ex- 
ploration. Marcos  had  with  him  a  brother  friar  and  a  number 
of  native  Mexicans.  Just  where  he  went  and  what  he  actually 
saw  is  rather  uncertain,  but  he  apparently  arrived  somewhere 
near  or  in  the  region  now  Arizona-New  Mexico.  Estevan  had 
gone  ahead  and  was  killed  for  his  arrogance  at  the  first  Pueblo 
village.     Marcos  soon  had  word  of  it  and  beat  a  precipitate 

'  Buckingham  Smith,  p.  102. 


Coronado 


109 


retreat,  though  he  claims  to  have  approached  near  enough  to 
view  from  a  hill  the  wonderful  magnificence  of  the  Seven 
Cities/ 

At  this  time  Francis  Vasquez  de  Coronado,  an  even-tem- 
pered gentleman,  but  withal  a  capable  one,  was  governor  of 
the  infant  province  of  New  Galicia,  arid  to  him  came  the  monk 
with  so  wonderful  a  tale,  that  Coronado  immediately  set  out 


Character  of  the  Seven  Cities  which  Friar  Marcos  so  glowingly  Described. 
Drawing  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

with  the  enthusiastic  prevaricator  for  Mexico,  and  held  a  secret 
conference  with  Mendoza.  But  instructions  were  given  to 
the  clear-headed  Melchior  Diaz  to  follow  back  the  friar's  trail 
and  verify  his  statements,  and   he  proceeded  north  as  far  as 


'  Castaneda  asserts  that  Marcos  was  sixty  leagues  from  the  towns  when  he  re- 
ceived news  of  the  death  of  Estevan,  and  that  he  did  not  go  a  step  nearer.  See 
The  JoM-ney  of  Coronado,  by  George  Parker  Winship,  p.  8.  Barnes  &  Co. 
edition. 


no  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

t 

Chichilticalli  before  he  was  obliged  to  return  on  account  of 
extreme  cold.  He  found  nothing  important.  This  he  re- 
ported by  letter  to  Mendoza,  and  with  his  usual  good  sense, 
he  included  a  careful  description  of  the  now  notorious  Seven 
Cities  of  Cibola,  obtained  from  natives  who  had  lived  there 
fifteen  or  twenty  years,  and  some  who  had  been  with  Estevan 
on  his  disastrous  entrada.  The  account  thus  derived  was  ab- 
solutely truthful  and  accurate ;  it  was  likewise  a  serious  damper 
on  the  enthusiasm  of  the  soldiers  of  the  new  expedition,  for  it 
became  known  in  spite  of  efforts  to  keep  it  secret.  Marcos 
again  repeated  his  gorgeous  fabrication  and  expectation  once 
more  rose  to  the  boiling  point,  for  what  was  the  word  of  a 
common  officer  against  that  of  the  distinguished  monk! 

Under  Coronado  the  army  went  forward  early  in  1540,  *'  the 
most  brilliant  company,"  says  Castafieda,'  "ever  collected  in 
the  Indies  to  go  in  search  of  new  lands"  ;  and  three  ships  were 
sent  up  the  coast  under  Hernando  de  Alargon.  When  they 
finally  stood  aghast  before  the  first  "city  "  of  Cibola  worn  and 
famished,  many  were  the  curses  bestowed  on  the  imaginative 
friar,  till  Coronado,  fearing  he  might  be  killed,  sent  him  at  the 
first  opportunity  back  to  Mexico.  There  were  no  great  cities, 
no  stores  of  gold,  no  precious  stones;  nothing  but  a  common 
adobe  village.  It  was  easily  conquered,  and  its  capture,  July 
4,  1540,  marks  the  first  battle  between  Amerinds  and  Euro- 
peans on  the  soil  of  the  Wilderness,  now  the  region  of  Arizona- 
New  Mexico.  There  was  luckily  plenty  of  maize  here,  and  the 
hungry  Spaniards  were  sadly  in  need  of  it.  Though  their 
dreams  received  a  heavy  shock,  they  soon  again  expanded 
with  the  hope  of  better  prospects  ahead,  just  as  the  gambler 
repeats  his  risk  with  the  idea  that  a  turn  of  luck  is  sure  to  re- 
trieve waning  fortune. 

They  heard  of  other  towns  called  Tusayan  (or  Tugano)  to 
the  north-west  and  men  were  sent  there,  one  party  under  Cap- 
tain Cardenas  continuing  on  to  a  great  river,  the  present  Colo- 
rado, of  which  the  people  told,  and  these  were  the  first  white 
men  to  see  the  magnificent  chasm  of  the  now  familiar  Grand 

'  See  the  narratives  of  Castaneda  and  Jaramillo  in  The  jfourney  of  Coronado, 
by  George  Parker  Winship.     Barnes  &  Co.  edition. 


The  Colorado  Found  1 1 1 

Canyon.*  About  the  same  time  Alargon,  with  his  ships,  en- 
deavouring to  get  into  communication  with  Coronado  had  dis- 
covered and  for  some  distance  explored  with  small  boats  the 
lower  part  of  the  same  river,  calling  it  the  Rio  de  Buena  Guia. 
And  now  Melchior  Diaz,  with  dispatches  and  the  discredited 
Friar  Marcos,  was  sent  back  from  Cibola,  and  ordered  to  ex- 
plore from  the  valley  of  the  Corazones,  wherein  was  a  small 
settlement  of  Spaniards  called  San  Hieronimo,  north-westward 
to  look  for  Alargon.  This  Corazones  was  evidently  the  same 
valley  that  Cabeza  de  Vaca  had  named."  Diaz  went  across  the 
north-western  corner  of  Mexico  and  the  south-western  corner  of 
.Arizona  to  the  Colorado  River,  which  he  reached  about  eighty 
miles  above  its  mouth.  Alargon  had  already  passed  down  on 
his  return,  but  Diaz  found  letters  left  by  him  at  the  base  of  a 
tree,  from  which  he  learned  the  character  of  the  river.  He 
determined  to  explore  westward,  and  went  four  days  beyond 
the  river  which  he  called  Rio  del  Tizon,  because  the  natives 
carried  about  with  them  firebrands.  He  did  not  know  the 
name  Alar^on  had  bestowed.  While  in  what  is  now  southern 
California  he  was  seriously  hurt  by  a  spear  which  he  threw  at 
an  unruly  dog,  and  after  twenty  days  of  suffering  he  died,  his 
men  carrying  him  back  through  every  danger,  as  long  as  life 
remained. 

While  these  explorations  of  the  Wilderness  were  going  on 
under  Coronado's  command,  he  heard  of  more  towns,  especially  a 
group,  and  a  single  town  of  the  group,  called  Tiguex,  northerly 
from  Cibola,  resting  on  the  banks  of  a  river.  Directing  the 
main  army  to  proceed  by  the  "regular"  road,  that  is,  by  the 
travelled  trail,  Coronado,  with  a  small  escort,  struck  out  by 
another  route  and  came  to  the  river  below  Tiguex  at  a  group 
of  villages  called  Tutahaco,  and  following  the  river  up,  reached 
Tiguex  by  that  way.     The  main   army  by  the  regular  trail 

*  For  an  account  of  the  explorations  of  the  Colorado,  see  The  Romance  of  the 
Colorado  River,  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh.     Topographical  description,  Chapter  III. 

^  An  indication  that  Corazones  was  farther  north  than  the  region  of  the 
pass  of  Mulatos,  and  therefore  that  Cabeza's  route  was  also  farther  north  than 
Bandelier  believes.  It  would  also  indicate  that  Estevan  led  the  way  back  over 
their  old  trail. 


112  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

passed  a  remarkable  town  on  a  high  cliff,  called  Acuco,  usually 
identified,  I  believe  wrongly,  with  Acoma  of  to-day.  At 
Tiguex,  which  was  on  the  Rio  Grande,  called  by  Coronado  the 
"  River  of  Tiguex,"  somewhere  near  the  present  town  of  So- 
corro, probably  about  fifteen  miles  below  it,  the  general  learned 
of  still  other  towns  in  various  directions,  for  the  valley  of  this 
river  and  the  contiguous  country  was  the  home  of  many  house- 
building Amerinds.'  One  of  the  important  villages  called 
Cicuye*  was  twenty-five  leagues  north-east  of  Tiguex,  and 
when  Coronado  went  there  he  met  a  native  from  the  East 
whom  the  soldiers  nicknamed  Turk  because  he  resembled  one, 
and  this  person  actuated  by  a  diabolical  object  rivalled  the 
Friar  Marcos  in  tales  of  great  cities  and  wonderful  riches  back 
in  his  country,  which  he  called  Quivira. 

Coronado  resolved  to  follow  his  guidance,  so  after  the 
people  of  Tiguex,  who  had  rebelled  at  the  impudence  and 
cruelty  of  the  Spaniards,  had  been  subdued,  that  is,  numer- 
ously killed,  Sind^th,e^^,s^y^/^  winter  of  1540-41  was  over,  pre- 
parations were /made  for  an  eastward  journey.  Other  parties 
were  sent  up/and  down  the  river  of  Tiguex,  fifty  and  eighty 
leagues  respectively.  Finally  leaving  the  river,  Coronado  with 
the  whole/army  proceeded  by  way  of  Cicuye  toward  the  realm 
of  lavisl/ wealth  the  Turk  described,  but  the  Turk  was  only 
trying  to  lure  them  to  destruction  on  the  wide,  arid  plains,  of 
Texas,  so  the  route  under  his  lead  bore  off  to  the  southward 
after  crossing  the  Pecos  River,  till  the  army  was  hard  pressed 
for  subsistence.  The  Turk's  trick  was  discerned,  and  he  was 
rewarded  by  strangulation.  Then  the  main  army  was  sent 
back  to  Tiguex  by  a  direct  route,  while  Coronado  with  a  picked 
company  continued  northerly  for  a  long  distance,  probably  to 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  Missouri  River,  the  first  white  men 
to  traverse  this  region,  unless,  which  is  not  probable,  Cabeza 
de  Vaca,  or  some  of  the  Narvaez  party,  may  have  reached  it. 

'  See  Chapters  IV.  and  V. 

*  Cicuye  is  identified  with  the  present  ruins  of  Pecos  near  Santa  Fe,  but  like 
most  of  the  accepted  identifications  it  is  not  correct.  Cicuye  was  farther  south. 
See  also  Bandelier  on  the  Ruins  of  the  Pueblo  of  Pecos ^  papers  of  the  Archaeologi- 
cal Institute  of  America,  American  Series  I. 


A  Sad  Return  113 

Coronado  returned  to  the  main  camp  at  Tiguex  with  the 
intention  of  planning  further  eastern  explorations  for  the  next 
year,  but  in  a  tilting  bout  being  nearly  killed  by  a  fall  from  his 
horse,  and  with  a  growing  conviction  that  little  more  was  to 
be  gained  by  a  longer  stay,  he  decided  .to  abandon  all  explora- 
tion at  this  point,  and  lead  his  forces  back  to  Culiacan. 

Every  one  was  disappointed ;  the  army  turned  its  back  on 
the  Wilderness,  so  pregnant  with  great  possibilities,  with  a  re- 
luctance akin  to  that  which  a  confirmed  toper  might  feel  on 
being  obliged  to  replace  the  cork  before  draining  the  last  drop. 
But  Coronado  was  right.  He  had  accomplished  a  remarkable 
exploit,  and  it  was  time  to  go  back.  The  country  had  been 
shown  to  have  no  ready  wealth,  it  could  not  then  be  settled, 
and  its  general  topography  had  been  discovered.  He  dis- 
played good  judgment  and  fine  resolution  in  adhering  to  his 
decision  despite  the  pleadings  of  his  officers,  and  the  scowls  of 
the  rank  and  file.  Toward  the  latter  part  of  1542  they  were 
again  in  the  Spanish  settlements,  and  the  army  disbanded. 
Mendoza  is  said  by  Castafieda  to  have  received  Coronado  with 
great  coolness,  but  this  is  doubtful. 

The  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,  the  first  permanent  villages 
met  with  in  the  Wilderness,  have  been  positively  identified  by 
many  eminent  scholars  with  the  modern  district  of  Zufii,  but 
it  is  a  peculiar  and  persistent  error.  Tiguex  was  near  Socorro, 
and  Cibola  was  southerly  from  it,  so  we  must  look  for  Cibola 
not  at  Zufii  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Little  Colorado,  which 
is  northerly,  but  on  those  of  the  Gila,  in  south-western  New 
Mexico.' 

Many  native  Mexicans  remained  at  Tiguex  and  several  at 
Cibola.  Others  stopped  at  still  other  places.  Friar  Juan  de 
Padilla  and  a  lay  brother,  Luis  de  Escalona,  also  desired  to  re- 
main, the  first  going  to  Quivira,  the  second  to  Cicuye,  and 
Coronado  sent  an  escort  as  far  as  Cicuye  with  them  and  their 

^  Some  years  ago,  in  a  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society  (1897),  I 
published  my  views  on  this  subject.  Since  then  I  have  succeeded  in  making  the 
matter  somewhat  clearer,  especially  as  to  the  site  of  Tiguex,  and  gave  my  ideas 
"before  the  meeting  of  the  International  Congress  of  Americanists,  13th  Session, 
New  York,  igo2.  Simpson,  before  me,  located  Tiguex  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Puerco,  and  it  can  be  nowhere  else. 


114  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

companions,  who  were  native  Mexicans,  a  Portuguese,  and 
two  negroes,  one  of  whom  had  his  wife  and  children.  Some 
sheep,  mules,  and  a  horse  were  also  left  with  them.  It  has 
been  stated  that  there  was  a  third  friar,  but  this  appears  to  be 
an  error.  The  Friar  Juan  de  la  Cruz  mentioned  in  an  old 
letter  was  perhaps  only  another  name  for  the  lay  brother  Luis, 
for  neither  Castafteda,  Jaramillo,  nor  the  letter,  mentions 
more  than  two  friars.     Both  were  soon  killed. 

The  next  entrance  into  New  Mexico  was  by  three  friars, 
Rodriguez,^  Lopez,  and  Santa  Maria,  in  1581,  escorted  by  an 
officer  named  Chamuscado,  with  eight  soldiers.  They  went  at 
least  as  far  as  Tiguex,  where  Lopez,  and  perhaps  Rodriguez, 
was  killed.  The  friars  of  this  same  order  (Franciscan),  fearing 
trouble,  sent  out  a  relief  party  under  Friar  Beltran  and  with 
this  went  Antonio  de  Espejo,  a  daring  and  wealthy  citizen  of 
Mexico.  The  departure  was  made  November  10,  1582,  the 
route  leading  northward  to  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  country 
they  called  New  Mexico.  Following  up  the  river,  which  they 
spoke  of  as  the  Rio  del  Norte,  passing  after  a  while  through  a 
number  of  permanent  villages,  ''very  well  built,"  with  estufas 
(kivas)  in  most  of  them,  and  seeing  others  at  a  distance,  they 
arrived  at  the  Tiguex  group.  In  one  of  these  called  Poala, 
the  friars  had  been  killed.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  were  a 
number  of  villages  below  Tiguex.  These  were  probably  the 
Tutahaco  of  Coronado's  journey.  Six  leagues  up  the  river 
from  Tiguex  they  found  a  province  called  Quires,  and  fourteen 
leagues  farther,  on  a  small  tributary  (the  Puerco)  they  came 
to  Cunames.  Then  another  five  or  six  leagues  north-west 
were  seven  villages  of  the  Ameies  people;  and  about  fifteen 
leagues  west  of  this  was  the  pueblo  of  Acoma.  Thus  it  is 
perfectly  clear  that  Espejo  travelled  from  Tiguex  continually 
northward  a?id  nor  th-zv  est  ward  to  reach  Acoma.  If  we  start 
assuming  Bernalillo  to  be  Tiguex'  it  throws  Acoma  in  the 
latitude  of  Taos  which  of  course  is  out  of  the  question.  Yet 
the  scholars  of  to-day  persist  is  locating  Tiguex  at  Bernalillo, 

'  Also  given  "  Ruiz  "  and  "  Ruyz." 

'^  The  site  assigned  for  Tiguex  by  Bandelier  is  at  Bernalillo,  but  I  consider  it 
an  impossible  location. 


OTaos 


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Villages 


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TA^x*  eo 


New  Mexico,  1540  to  1630. 

This  map  is  the  result  of  more  than  ten  years'  study  of  the  subject.     It  is  entirely  at  variance 
with  the  locations  as  accepted  by  students  and  writers  up  to  the  present.      Tiguex  heretofore  has 
been  placed  at  Bernalillo,  whereas  it  was  far  south  of  that  point,  as  shown  above. 
Drawing  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

I  15 


If  1 6  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

many  miles  out  of  Espejo's  inward  route.  For  the  locations 
of  these  villages  see  map  on  page  115. 

From  Acoma  he  went  on  west  to  Zufti,  probably  the  first 
white  man  ever  to  set  foot  there,  and  he  found  at  that  place 
three  of  the  Mexican  natives  who  had  remained  in  the  country 
as  noted  above.  This  fact  has  been  made  much  of,  too  much, 
in  establishing  Zufii  as  the  site  of  Cibola,  even  to  the  extent 
of  nullifying  the  testimony  from  Espejo's  route  and  other 
equally  valuable  data.*  A  considerable  number  of  these 
Mexicans  had  stopped  at  Tiguex  and  other  places,  and  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  they  were  petrified  in  their  tracks.  Espejo 
continued  westward  from  Zufti,  about  to  the  San  Francisco 
Mountains,  but  he  did  not  see  the  great  Colorado.  Returning 
to  Zufti  he  struck  out  for  the  upper  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
reaching  it  sixty  leagues  above  his  Quires  villages.  Returning 
to  the  latter,  he  took  an  easterly  course  to  Hubates,  then 
north  to  the  Tamos,  and  east  again  to  the  Pecos  River  which 
he  followed  out  of  the  country,  naming  it  the  Rio  de  las  Vacas, 
because  of  the  large  herds  of  buffalo  he  saw.^ 

Still  nothing  had  been  done  in  the  way  of  permanent  settle- 
ments. But  this  was  now  to  come.  Fifteen  years  later,  in 
1598,  the  famous  expedition  of  the  bold  and  wealthy  Juan 
de  Oftate,  who  had  been  appointed  governor,  made  its  way 
up  the  Rio  Grande,  a  long  and  elaborate  train.  Travelling 
through  many  villages  he  finally  established  the  settlement  of 
San  Gabriel,  at  the  native  village  called  San  Juan,  north  of  the 
present  Santa  F^.  Next  to  St.  Augustine  (1565),  this,  now 
marked  by  the  village  of  Chamita,  is  the  oldest  European  town 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States.  Six  years  later,  with 
thirty  soldiers  and  two  padres,  he  crossed  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  by  way  of  Zufti;  the  Moki  towns;  a  stream  he  called 
Colorado,  now  the  Little  Colorado ;  skirting  the  San  Francisco 
mountains;    to    the    great    Colofado    at    the   mouth   of   Bill 

'  Benavides,  in  his  residence  in  the  country,  went  over  the  same  route  as 
Espejo,  and  his  itinerary  tallies  with  Espejo's  from  Tiguex  to  Acoma.  Thus 
Tiguex  falls  below  the  Puerco  by  evidence  separated  by  more  than  forty  years. 

'•"It  has  been  stated  by  some  historians  that  Santa  Fe  was  founded  in  1582,  but 
it  is  a  mistake. 


The  Pueblos  Revolt  117 

Williams  Fork.  He  called  the  Colorado  the  Rio  Grande  de 
Esperanza,  and  descended  to  its  mouth,  where  he  stood  Janu- 
ary 28,  1605,  three  full  centuries  ago. 

The  same  year,  on  his  return,  he  founded  Santa  Fe,  later 
went  out  across  the  plains  toward  the  Missouri,  and  was  gener- 
ally active  and  efficient.  Every  effort  was  made  to  organise 
the  country,  and  though  the  padres  worked  earnestly  and  fear- 
lessly, there  was  much  dissatisfaction,  which  had  begun  with 
the  treatment  the  Puebloans  received  from  the  captains  of 
Coronado's  expedition.  The  latent  fires  smouldered.  A 
native  of  Taos  began  to  organise  an  opposition,  and  in  1680 
he  had  united  about  all  the  Puebloans,  who,  on  signal,  began 
a  war  of  extermination.  The  Spaniards  were  speedily  over- 
whelmed and  driven  from  the  country.  Had  the  Puebloans 
been  able  to  continue  their  league  the  re-occupation  of  New 
Mexico  would  have  been  long  delayed,  but  they  were  not  ac- 
customed to  fighting  in  concert,  hence  when  General  Vargas 
appeared  with  a  conquering  force  in  1692  the  rebellion  collapsed 
like  a  house  of  cards.     It  was  their  last  stand. 

Although  Spain  laid  numberless  restrictions  on  exploration 
and  settlement  in  the  endeavour  to  compel  large  tribute  to  the 
royal  coffers,  the  opening  of  the  next  century  saw  a  number 
of  settlements  flourishing  in  New  Mexico.  Missions  were 
established  with  greater  permanence,  the  ruins  of  the  old  ones 
bestowing  an  air  of  long  European  occupation  on  the  new  land. 
Villages  were  settled  by  Spaniards  and  their  families,  cattle, 
and  sheep  were  brought  in  larger  numbers,  and  agriculture 
was  developed  on  a  greater  scale,  so  that  at  last  the  life  of 
Europe  became  rooted  in  this  foreign  soih  Each  governor 
during  his  term  ruled  much  at  his  own  pleasure,  being  so  far 
from  the  central  power,  and  they  went  usually  on  the  principle 
of  making  hay  while  the  sun  shines.  The  regions  away  from 
the  Rio  Grande  were  left  alone  as  a  rule,  though  expeditions 
from  time  to  time  went  on  various  errands:  to  punish  the 
Apaches  or  other  predatory  tribes ;  or,  perhaps,  to  oppose  the 
progress  of  the  French  from  the  eastward.  About  1720,  one 
under  Villazur,  Governor  Cossio's  lieutenant,  was  sent  out  on 
the  plains  to   the  Pawnee  villages,   for  what  purpose  is  not 


Following  the  Coast  119 

exactly  clear,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  with  an  idea  of  enlist- 
ing this  tribe  against  the  French.  Almost  the  entire  force 
was  massacred,  only  a  few  escaping  to  carry  the  news  to  Santa 
Fe.  The  Spaniards  blamed  the  French  for  inciting  the  natives 
to  this  act,  and  as  such  action  was  quite  common  always  by 
French,  Spaniards,  and  English  alike,  it  is  not  improbable. 

By  this  time  a  number  of  Spanish  settlements  were  estab- 
lished in  Texas  and  there  was  intermittent  communication. 

The  year  Coronado  returned  Cabrillo  coasted  north  on  the 
Pacific,  touching  here  and  there  along  what  is  now  California, 
and  died  at  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands,  the  command  then  fall- 
ing to  Ferrelo,  who  explored  as  far  as  what  is  now  the  southern 
line  of  Oregon.  The  famous  English  pirate,  Drake,  thirty- 
seven  years  later,  with  his  vessel  filled  with  Spanish  plunder, 
sailed  north  from  the  west  coast  of  Mexico  endeavouring  to 
find  a  water  passage  to  the  Atlantic.  He  repaired  his  ship  in 
a  bay,  and  to-day,  just  north  of  the  Golden  Gate,  a  small  bay 
is  known  as  Drake's  Bay.  Another  thirteen  years  and  a 
Greek,  Juan  de  Fuca,  discovered  the  strait  which  is  now  known 
by  his  name,  as  well  as  the  great  arm  of  the  sea  called  Puget's 
Sound.  Four  years  after  this  Vizcaino  was  sent  with  three 
vessels  to  explore  the  northern  coast,  but  he  did  not  then  go 
beyond  the  Gulf  of  California.* 

Then  Philip  III.  came  to  the  throne  and  adopted  more 
vigorous  measures  than  his  predecessor.  Vizcaino  was  again 
sent  forth,  in  1602,  with  a  command  to  make  a  close  examina- 
tion of  the  coast,  and  this  expedition  had  fruitful  results  in 
breaking  the  Wilderness  in  that  direction.  Vizcaino  entered 
the  harbour  of  San  Diego,  which  had  earlier  been  visited  by 
Cabrillo.  Here  he  heard  accounts  of  the  New  Mexican  settle- 
ments from  the  natives.  Then  he  sailed  past  the  Santa  Bar- 
bara Islands,  turned  Cape  Concepcion,  which  he  named,  and 
made  a  general  examination,  covering  the  same  course  as 
Cabrillo,  which  convinced  him  that  the  land  was  fertile  and 
a  good  place  for  colonies.  He  finally  obtained  permission 
to  organise  and  settle  the   region,   but  died  before  he  could 

^  See  Robert  Greenhow's  admirable  History  of  Oregon  and  California,  and  the 
history  by  H.  H.  Bancroft,  for  details  on  California. 


20 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


execute  his  plans.  Many  years  then  rolled  away  with  no  attempt 
to  open  the  rich  Californian  lands.  It  was  not  till  1697  that 
any  settlement  was  made,  and  this  was  in  Lower  California,  on 
the  east  side,  and  was  called  Loreto,  the  beginning  of  Friar 
Salvatierra's  Jesuit  missions,  in  which  enterprises  he  was  as- 
sisted by  friars  Kino,  Piccolo,  Ugarte,  and  others,  who,  with 
great  labour,  extending  over  a  period  of  sixty  years,  founded 
and  maintained  sixteen  missionary  settlements,  all  on  the  east 


On  the  Yuma  Desert. 

Character  of  the  Country  around  the  Head  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 


side  of  the  peninsula  and  none  in  Upper  or  Alta  CaHfornia. 
Kino  had  established  in  Sonora,  in  1687,  the  mission  of  Do- 
lores, and  from  this  place  he  passed  back  and  forth  to  the 
missions  of  Lower  California,  learning  the  topography  of  the 
region  around  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  and  making,  in  1701, 
a  fairly  accurate  map  of  the  head  of  the  Gulf.  He  was  the  first 
white  man  to  see  the  now  famous  Pima  ruins,  called  Casa 
Grande,  a  huge  adobe  mass  of  thick  walls  built  in  prehistoric 
times. 


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^122  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

The  Jesuit  order  was  at  length  superseded,  1767,  by  the 
Franciscan,  whose  members,  patient,  earnest  workers  in  their 
cause,  at  once  began  efforts  to  plant  missions  in  Alta  California, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1769  they  proceeded  from  La  Paz,  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  with  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  to  San  Diego,  sending  ships  around  with  supplies. 
They  arrived  on  May  14th  and  found  two  vessels  already  in 
the  harbour,  so  that  the  settlement  was  immediately  begun. 
It  was  the  first  in  this  portion  of  the  Wilderness.  A  second 
party  was  to  establish  itself  at  the  Bay  of  Monterey,  but  miss- 
ing the  way  came  to  San  Francisco  Bay  instead,  then  returned 
to  Monterey,  and  finally  to  San  Diego.  The  natives  were 
hostile,  food  grew  scarce,  and  starvation  threatened,  but  a 
vessel,  which  had  been  sent  back  for  supplies,  came  in  the 
nick  of  time.  The  prosperity  of  California  began  with  this 
event,  March  10,  1770.  Other  settlers  followed,  cattle  multi- 
plied, vines  and  fruit  trees  bore  abundantly,  till,  before  the 
eventful  year  of  1776,  the  California  missions  were  for  ever  out 
of  reach  of  the  bony  grasp  of  starvation.  By  the  close  of  the 
decade  eight  had  been  founded  from  San  Diego  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  before  the  end  of  the  century  nine  more.'  Each 
consisted  of  a  church,  storehouses,  workshops,  dwellings,  and 
a  fort,  usually  arranged  in  a  square.  All  these  structures  were 
at  first  extremely  simple,  but  as  time  passed  the  friars  ex- 
hibited their  artistic  taste  in  the  construction  of  really  admir- 
able specimens  of  architecture.  Some  of  these  are  still  standing 
and  will  bear  out  this  assertion.  There  were  in  California  four 
presidios,  or  military  posts,  in  addition  to  the  forces  at  the 
missions,  at  San  Diego,  Monterey,  Santa  Barbara,  and  San 
Francisco. 

The  missions  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  those  of  California 
possessed  no  route  for  overland  communication.     Two  monks 

^  San  Diego,  1769  ;  San  Luis  Rey  de  Francia,  1798  ;  San  Juan  Capistrano, 
1776  ;  San  Gabriel,  1771  ;  San  Fernando,  1797  ;  Santa  Barbara,  1786  ;  La  Puris- 
sima  Concepcion,  1787;  San  Luis  Obispo,  1772;  San  Miguel,  1797;  Soledad, 
1791  ;  San  Antonio  de  Padua,  1771  ;  San  Carlos  de  Monterey,  1770;  San  Juan 
Bautista,  1797;  Santa  Cruz,  1794;  Santa  Clara,  1777;  San  Francisco,  1776; 
San  Jose,  1797.  In  the  next  century  three  more  were  added  :  Santa  Inez,  1804;" 
San  Rafael,  18 17  ;  San  Francisco  de  Solano  de  Sonoma,  1820. 


Glen  Canyon,  Colorado  River. 
This  Shows  the  Nature  of  the  Colorado  where  Escalante  Crossed  in  1776. 
on  Each  Side  is  Barren  Sandstone. 
Photograph  by  J.  K.  Millers,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 


The  Surface 


123 


124  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

of  the  Franciscan  order,  in  trying  to  establish  such  a  route, 
established  for  themselves  imperishable  fame.  They  were 
Garces  and  Escalarite.  Not  far  from  where  Tucson  now 
stands  a  mission  had  been  founded  by  Kino,  whom  Humboldt 
calls  the  "astronomer  of  Ingolstadt."  This  was  San  Xavier 
del  Bac.  Franciscans  were  occupying  the  place,  and  there 
Garces  made  headquarters,  accomplishing  five  journeys  from 
that  point.  The  presidio,  or  military  post,  of  Tubac  was  about 
thirty  miles  south  of  Bac,  and  from  that  post  soldiers  kept 
watch  on  the  natives  of  the  region.  Garces  reached  Bac  in 
June,  1768,  and  made  two  preliminary  explorations  before  the 
end  of  1770.  In  1771  he  reached  the  Colorado  over  the  same 
trail  that  Kino  had  followed  long  before,  but  the  Franciscans 
seemed  to  have  no  record  of  this  nor  of  Ofiate's  trail ;  at  least 
they  did  not  profit  by  these  earlier  explorations.  In  1774, 
with  Captain  Anza,  Garces  made  the  trip  across  the  Colorado 
through  to  the  mission  of  San  Gabriel,  near  the  .site  of  the 
present  town  of  Los  Angeles. 

In  the  winter  of  1775-76  Garces  again  went  with  Anza, 
who  was  bound  for  San  Francisco  Bay,  there  to  found  a  mis- 
sion, to  the  Colorado,  where  he  stopped  for  a  time,  then  went 
on  to  San  Gabriel.  Returning  to  the  Mohave  country  he 
struck  eastward,  June  4,  1776,  on  his  celebrated  entrada,^  with 
no  companions  but  the  natives  along  the  route,  and  on  July  2d 
reached  Oraibi,  only  to  be  there  treated  with  supreme  con- 
tempt. On  the  4th  he  was  driven  from  the  town,  and  he  re- 
turned to  the  mission  of  Bac  by  way  of  the  Colorado  River. 

Escalante  was  at  this  moment  making  preparations  for  his 
traverse  to  the  San  Gabriel  Mission.  On  July  29th  he  started 
northy  absurd  as  it  may  now  appear  to  us  who  know  the  whole 
geography.  Crossing  western  Colorado,  over  Green  River, 
which  he  called  Buenaventura,  near  the  mouth  of  White 
River,  he  mounted  the  Wasatch  Range  by  the  Uinta  and  its 
branches,  and  entered  Salt  Lake  valley,  probably  by  what  is 
now  known  as  Spanish  Fork.  After  viewing  Lake  Timpano- 
gos  (Utah  Lake),  he  turned  southward,  followed  down  the 
western  edge  of  the  great   mountains  extending  north  and 

'  See  Garces,  by  Elliott  Coues. 


Crossing  of  the  Fathers  125 

south  along  the  central  line  of  Utah,  about  through  where 
Fillmore,  Beaver,  and  Parowan  now  stand,  to  the  Virgen 
River  at  about  Toquerville.  Here  the  season  indicating  the 
approach  of  winter,  it  was  decided  to  abandon  the  attempt  to 
reach  San  Gabriel,  and  strike  eastward  for  the  Moki  Towns, 
where  Escalante  previously  had  been.  He  was  not  aware  of 
the  tremendous  obstacles,  in  the  nature  of  deep  canyons, 
which  intervened.  After  a  vast  amount  of  effort  he  crossed, 
not  the  Grand  Canyon,  as  has  sometimes  been  stated,  but  the 
lower  end  of  Glen  Canyon,  at  a  point  about  thirty-five  miles 
above  what  is  now  Lee  Ferry.  The  place  is  still  known  as  the 
Crossing  of  the  Fathers.  From  here  there  was  a  trail  to  the 
Moki  Towns,  and  their  anxiety  soon  came  to  an  end. 

The  route  Garces  travelled  from  the  west  to  the  Moki 
Towns  became  no  highway ;  indeed,  for  years  was  not  travelled 
at  all,  nor  had  Escalante's  anything  in  its  favour  so  far  as 
reaching  California  was  concerned.  For  half  a  century  longer 
the  New  Mexican  and  Californian  missions  remained  about  as 
far  apart  as  ever.  Those  in  California  waxed  rich  and  had 
little  cause  to  desire  the  world  to  come  to  them.  When  it 
did  come  it  was  the  beginning  of  their  end. 

The  Spaniards  were  as  brave  a  people  as  ever  lived.  They 
had  now  firmly  established  themselves  in  Texas,  in  New  Mex- 
ico, and  in  California,  and  their  claims  on  the  basis  of  first 
exploration  covered  a  vast  area.  In  every  direction  they  op- 
posed the  entrance  of  other  nationalities.  ,  The  lands  were 
forced  to  pay  tribute  to  Spain ;  nothing  was  left  for  local 
government,  and  these  methods,  the  antithesis  of  home  rule, 
were  the  undoing  of  this  noble  race. 


M^>^: 


CHAPTER  VII 

Soto  and  the  Mississippi — The  Gate  to  the  Wilderness — The  Voyageur — Cham- 
plain  to  Mackinaw — Pandemonium  of  Wars — Down  the  Mississippi  to  Soto's 
Grave — Louisiana — La  Salle  and  His  Death — Coureurs  de  Bois — First  Sight 
of  the  Northern  Rockies  —  Where  Rolls  the  Oregon  —  1  he  American 
Revolution. 


WHILE  Coronado  was  striving  from  the  direction  of 
Mexico  to  reach  the  mirage-like  cities  of  Quivira, 
which  the  deceitful  Turk  asserted  were  somewhere  eastward 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  in  search  of  which  he  arrived  in  some 
locality  not  many  miles  from  the  present  site  of  Kansas  City/ 
another  Spaniard,  whose  name  is  better  known,  not  for  greater 
deeds,  but  because  the  country  he  traversed  is  more  familiar, 
and  because  of  his  romantic  burial  at  night  beneath  the  turbid 
flood  he  had  been  second  to  discover,  was  marching  and 
fighting  towards  the  great  river  so  permanently  linked  with 
his  name.  This  was  Hernando  de  Soto,  who,  in  1539,  had 
landed  with  a  large  force  at  Tampa  Bay  for  the  purpose 
of  conquering  and  appropriating  to  his  heart's  desire  all  of 

^  Some  years  ago,  Col.  John  Reid  found  on  his  farm,  six  miles  west  of  Lexing- 
ton, Mo.,  and  two  miles  frc^m  the  river,  a  silver-plated  halberd,  together  with 
some  old  French  and  Spanish  coins.  The  articles  were  six  feet  below  the  surface, 
and  were  exposed  by  the  cutting  of  a  creek.  Later  owned  by  Mr.  Jo.  A.  Wilson 
of  Lexington.  This  halberd  does  not  indicate  Coronado's  presence,  but  it  is  in- 
teresting in  this  connection.  The  French  coins  would  suggest  a  later  time — dates 
not  known. 

126 


Burial  of  Soto  127 

Florida,  a  realm  comprising  then  the  whole  continent  east  of 
the  River  of  Palms,  now  the  Rio  Grande.  His  cruelties  to 
the  natives  were  frightful,  and  as  he  wandered  he  left  a  trail 
of  mingled  Spanish  and  native  blood,  which  at  length  led  him, 
in  1 541,  to  the  Mississippi,  where  he  crossed  some  distance 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  Near  Tampa  he  had  cap- 
tured a  white  man,  a  survivor  of  the  Narvaez  party,  who  had 
been  preserved  among  the  natives  by  the  intercession  of  a 
chief's  daughter,  and  this  Juan  Ortiz  should  have  been  a  re- 
minder of  the  fate  of  Narvaez,  a  fate  largely  due  to  impru- 
dence, bad  management,  and  a  disregard  for  the  rights  of 
natives;  but  it  seems  to  have  conveyed  no  warning. 

Continuing  his  harsh  career  into  the  Wilderness  as  far  as 
what  is  now  central  Arkansas,  he  turned  south  and  passed  the 
winter  of  1541-42  in  north-western  Louisiana,  or  south-western 
Arkansas.  Coronado  spent  this  same  winter  at  Tiguex,  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  where  the  inhabitants  declared  the  Spaniards 
had  no  regard  for  friendship  or  their  pledged  word.  In  the 
spring  Soto  went  down  to  the  mouth  of  Red  River.  There 
his  health  failed.  He  died,  and  his  followers,  to  prevent  the 
natives  from  finding  his  grave,  buried  him  in  the  deep  water 
of  the  river.  The  command  fell  to  Moscoso  de  Alvarado, 
who  now  led  the  company  again  westward,  hoping  to  come  to 
Spanish  settlements,  but  when  he  arrived  in  Texas  at  the 
upper  part  of  Trinity  River  he  abandoned  the  attempt  and 
returned  to  the  Mississippi. 

He  had  probably  been  within  less  than  two  hundred  miles 
of  the  place  where  Coronado,  about  the  same  time,  sent  his 
army  back.  They  had  rumours  of  the  presence  of  Coronado, 
but  the  nature  of  the  country  was  so  forbidding  they  feared 
to  proceed.  Moscoso  was  even  more  brutal  than  Soto.  He 
punished  natives  by  cutting  off  their  noses  and  their  right 
hands;  or,  by  another  method  not  unusual  with  the  early 
Spaniards,  setting  hungry  dogs  on  a  victim  to  tear  him  to 
pieces  before  their  eyes.  At  last  this  remnant  of  the  expedi- 
tion, that  had  started  with  high  hopes,  succeeded  in  building 
boats  with  which  they  descended  the  Mississippi  and  coasted 
westward,  reaching  the  province  of  Panuco,  in  north-eastern 


.128 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


Mexico.  A  great  deal  of  misery  and  death  had  been  brought 
to  the  people  of  the  new  land,  but,  aside  from  ground  for  an 
additional  Spanish  claim,  little  more  had  been  accomplished 
by  this  than  by  the  Narvaez  expedition. 

Although  the  Spaniards  opposed  vigorously  the  coming  to 
the  New  World  of  any  other  people,  New  Spain  soon  found  a 
rival  in  New  France,  and  then  in  New  England.  Cortez  had 
barely  finished  the  overthrow  of  the  Aztecs  before  Verrazano, 


Barriers  of  Adamant — Mission  Range. 
Photograph  by  R.  H.  Chapman,  U.  S.  Gaol.  Survey. 


for  the  French  King,  cruised  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
Hatteras  northward  to  where  French  fishermen  already  had 
been,  and  where  Cartier  in  1534,  ten  years  later,  discovered 
the  great  island  we  call  Newfoundland  and  his  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  The  next  year  he  sailed  up  the  great  river,  to 
which  he  gave  the  same  name,  and  thereby  opened  the  real 
gate  to  our  Wilderness;  for  it  was  by  this  route,  and  not  by 
the  south,  that  the  best  early  entrance  was  offered,  on  account 
of  the  numerous  closely  connected  lakes  and  waterways  of 
various  kinds.     Travel  in  a  new  country  is  always  easier  by 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


The  Northern  Gateway  129 


boat  than  by  any  other  method,  for,  if  there  are  plenty  of 
waterways,  a  canoe  and  its  cargo  can  be  carried  from  the  head 
of  one  stream,  or  lake,  to  the  next  nearest  one,  and  so  a  prac- 
tically continuous  passage  effected  with  quantities  of  goods, 
which  otherwise  could  not  be  transported  without  a  large 
number  of  pack-animals  or  waggons,  and  pack-animals  fre- 
quently need  a  way  cleared  for  them,  while  a  waggon  in  a  new 
land  is  often  impossible.  So  by  these  waterways,  numerously 
ramifying  from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  into  the  vast 
western  Unknown,  the  Frenchmen,  with  the  beautiful  birch- 
bark  canoe  of  the  Amerind,  whose  skill  they  also  speedily 
acquired,  entered  the  Wilderness  with  a  sailor's  light-hearted- 
ness,  singing  their  gay  chansons  as  they  paddled  along;  songs 
with  little  sense  but  much  rhythm,  like  all  the  ditties  sailors 
use  for  expediting  their  labours,  which,  like  rowing  or  paddling, 
require  to  be  accomplished  in  unison.  As  New  France  de- 
veloped into  Canada  the  voyageiir  became  a  familiar  and  dis- 
tinct character;  a  creation  of  the  New  World.  He  was  as 
competent  with  a  canoe  as  was  his  Spanish  brother,  the 
vaqiicro,  with  the  horse.  We  meet  him  constantly  in  the 
Wilderness,  and  all  the  waterways  leading  to  it,  his  airy  verses 
echoing  through  the  forest  till  the  sombre  pine  trees  seemed 
more  lightly  to  wave  their  drooping  branches;  or  dying  across 
limitless  stretches  of  prairie,  in  conflict,  perhaps,  with  the 
stranger  notes  of  some  Amerindian  chant. 

By  these  songs  the  voyageurs  united  the  strokes  of  their 
oars  or  paddles,  and  they  were  often  responsive,  like  the  sailor- 
songs  on  shipboard,  between  one  party  and  the  other;  the 
steersman  and  the  rowers,  or  the  forward  and  the  stern  oars- 
men. One  stanza  of  a  voyageurs  song  will  serve  to  give  their 
character: 

"  Derriere  chez  nous,  il  y  a  un  etang,' 
Ye,  ye,  ment. 

Trois  canards  s'en  vont  baignans, 

Tous  du  long  de  la  riviere, 

Legerement  ma  bergere, 

Legerment  ye  ment." 

*  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  America,  John  Bradbury,  edition  of  1817,  p.  12. 
9 


I30  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

TRANSLATION 

**  Behind  our  hotise  there  is  a  pond, 
Fal  lal  de  ra. 
There  came  three  ducks  to  swim  thereon; 
All  along  the  river  clear, 

Lightly  my  shepherdess  dear. 
Lightly,  fal  de  ra." 

Cartier. opened  the  way  as  far  as  Hochelaga,  now  the  site 
of  Montreal,  which  was  soon  to  become  the  very  centre  of  all 
commerce  with  the  Wilderness.  Attempts  were  made  by  the 
French  to  found  settlements  down  the  coast,  and  one,  on  St. 
John's  River,  in  Florida,  seemed  to  have  some  life  in  it  till  the 
Spaniards  entrenched  themselves  at  St.  Augustine,  and  from 
there  crushed  the  French  fort  and  the  French  power  in  that 
quarter  for  all  time.  This  St.  Augustine  of  the  Spaniards  was 
the  first  permanent  settlement  of  Europeans  within  the  limits 
of  the  United  States  (1565),  antedating  by  forty  years  Ofiate's 
founding  of.  his  first  village  at  San  Juan,  New  Mexico,  now 
marked,  as  previously  mentioned,  by  the  little  town  of 
Chamita. 

About  the  time  that  Ofiate  was  organising  New  Mexico 
there  came  over,  to  the  north-east  coast  one  Sieur  de  Monts, 
who  established  Port  Royal  for  France  in  a  region  named 
Acadia,  lying  between  the  Lower  St.  Lawrence  and  the  At- 
lantic, a  title  later  restricted  to  the  portion  now  called  Nova 
Scotia,  and  immortalised  in  Longfellow's  poem,  Evangeline. 
But  it  was  not  till  the  illustrious  Champlain,  afterwards  so 
justly  famous,  founded  Quebec,  in  1608,  that  France  really 
closed  her  grip  on  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  continent ;  a 
grip  that  was  later  to  be  broken  for  ever  by  the  British.  Hav- 
ing permanently  settled  Quebec,  Champlain,  with  his  voyageurs, 
extended  his  travels  westward  by  watercourses  and  lakes  as  far 
as  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw,  founding  many  trading-posts  and 
missions,  and  marking  the  first  practicable  highway  to  the 
Wilderness.  He  was  efficiently  supported  in  his  efforts  by 
monks  of  the  Jesuit  and  Franciscan  orders,  brethren  of  those 
who  were  labouring  diligently  in   the  south-west,   and   who. 


Champlain 


31 


though  their  energetic  and  sincere  labours  to  Christianise  the 
natives  amounted  to  no  more  than  a  puff-ball  tossed  against 
the  side  of  a  battleship,  performed  a  great  and  indispensable 
work  in  this  breaking  of  the  Wilderness. 

The  British  also  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  New 


A  Reception  Committee. 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


World,  and  after  several  explorations  along  the  coast — 
Raleigh's  attempt  at  settlement  in  what  is  now  North  Caro- 
lina; Davis's  exploration  in  the  Far  North,  where  his  name 
still  remains  to  designate  the  strait  he  discovered — they  finally- 
founded  on  James  River  their  first  permanent  settlement  in 
1607,   two  years  after  the  establishment  of  Santa   F6,    New 


f  132  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Mexico.  To  this  they  gave  the  name  Jamestown,  and  from  it 
as  a  centre  they  expanded  their  power.  The  French  were 
pushing  out  at  the  North;  the  Spaniards  controlled  the  South 
and  West.  Then  a  fourth  nation  appeared — the  Dutch — who 
settled  at  what  is  now  New  York  in  1614,  five  years  after 
Hudson  discovered  the  river  now  bearing  his  name  to  mark 
the  event.  Not  long  after  this  Hudson  found  for  England 
the  immense  bay  to  which  his  name  was  given,  and  where 
his  mutinous  crew  turned  him,  with  some  of  his  adherents, 
adrift  on  the  icy  sea.  Never  was  he  heard  from  again. 
Then  the  Mayflower  came,  freighted  heavily  with  new  and 
forceful  ideas  and  a  hardy  company,  who  entered  by  Ply- 
mouth  Rock;  so  that  by  162^;  all  the  forces  that  were  to 
battle  for  the  mastery  of  North  America  had  established  their 
footings,  and  with  the  various  native  tribes,  who  opposed 
their  encroachment  and  their  cruelty,  they  soon  turned  the 
land  into  a  pandemonium.  Almost  daily  the  natives  were 
given  exhibitions  of  treachery,  brutality,  butchery,  on  the  part 
of  these  newcomers  among  themselves,  even  while  the  good 
priests  held  aloft  the  crucifix  and  repeated,  "Thou  shalt  not !  " 
Is  it  a  wonder  the  Amerind  refused  to  believe?  He  was  quick 
to  perceive  that,  except  the  priests,  the  one  sole  object  of  all 
these  warring  people  was  pecuniary  advantage.  This,  indeed, 
was  rendered  imperative  by  the  European  system  of  life. 

As  a  rule  the  French  were  the  most  humane,  the  most  just; 
they  treated  the  natives  more  as  if  they  might  be  human 
beings  with  sensitiveness  and  intelligence.  William  Penn,  and 
his  followers  among  the  English,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany, also  dealt  justly  with  them,  but  in  the  eyes  of  the  others 
the  Amerind  was  a  beast  of  the  forest  to  be  exterminated. 
The  French  sent  their  missionaries  and  traders  far  to  the  West 
and  before  long  had  acquired  a  hold  on  the  continent  equal  to 
that  of  the  Spaniards ;  a  hold  which  it  then  seemed  impossible 
should  ever  be  lessened.  Raddison,  the  French  trader,  is  said 
to  have  been  on  the  head  of  the  Mississippi  as  early  as  1660. 

Marquette  and  Joliet,  the  former  a  priest,  the  latter  a 
trader,  were  sent  by  Frontenac,  in  1673,  to  search  for  a  route 
across  the  Wilderness  to  the  Pacific  by  way  of  a  great  river,  of 


Louisiana  133 

which  much  was  told  by  the  natives.  The  river  indicated  was 
doubtless  the  Columbia.  Proceeding  from  Michigan  they 
finally  came  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin  to  the  river  form- 
ing the  eastern  boundary  of  the  vaster  Wilderness,  the  Missis- 
sippi, called  by  Marquette  Conception, -and  down  it  they  went, 
instead  of  up,  as  they  should  have  gone  to  get  on  the  track  to 
the  Pacific,  their  birch-bark  canoes  gliding  swiftly  along,  while 
the  unfathomed  waters  for  the  first  time  heard  the  song  of  the 
voyageiir.  Down  they  went  to  Soto's  burial-place.  They  were 
encroaching  on  the  claims  of  the  Spaniards,  but  boundaries 
then  were  as  nebulous  as  the  Milky  Way,  and  the  sword  was 
the  instrument  of  survey  by  which  all  lines  were  drawn.  Their 
flag  was  finally  carried  through  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
by  that  splendid  character  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur  de  la  Salle,* 
a  Frenchman  whose  qualities  shine  ever  undimmed  by  the  roll 
of  fading  centuries.  With  Tonty  and  Hennepin  he  came 
through  the  Great  Lakes,  and.  leaving  these  two  men  behind, 
reached  with  his  party  the  Mississippi  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Illinois,  and  proceeding  down  it  finally,  in  1682,  standing  at 
the  delta  beside  a  great  claim-post,  he  proclaimed  the  juris- 
diction of  Louis  the  Great  (XIV.)  over  all  this  country  of 
"Louisiana," 

"  the  seas,  harbours,  ports,  bays,  adjacent  straits,  and  all  nations, 
peoples,  provinces,  cities,  towns,  villages,  mines,  minerals,  fisheries, 
streams,  and  rivers,  within  the  extent  of  said  Louisiana,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  great  river  St.  Louis,  otherwise  called  the  Ohio,  .  .  . 
as  also  along  the  river  Colbert  or  Mississippi,  and  the  rivers  which 
discharge  themselves  thereinto,  from  its  source  beyond  the  country 
of  the  Nadouessioux  ...  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  sea,  or 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  also  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  Palms,  upon 
the  assurance  we  have  from  the  natives  of  these  countries,  that  we 
are  the  first  Europeans  who  have  descended  or  ascended  the  said 
river  Colbert." 

They  had  forgotten  Pineda  and  the  unfortunate  Soto  and  Mos- 
coso,  to  say  nothing  of  the  still  more  unfortunate  Narvaez, 

'  See  La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West,  by  Francis  Parkman. 


§134  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

who  was  wrecked  at  the  river's  entrance.  This  claim  cer- 
tainly was  broad ;  it  covered  almost  everything. 

La  Salle  had  a  magnificent  dream  of  developing  this  enor- 
mous region  for  his  King,  and  proceeding  to  France  he  came 
back  with  vessels  laden  with  supplies  and  colonists.  But  they 
missed  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Then  a  series  of  disasters  left 
the  leader  stranded,  as  the  Narvaez  survivors  had  been,  on  the 
coast  of  Texas.  La  Salle,  of  all  men,  surely  deserved  more 
generous  treatment  from  Fortune.  But  worse  was  to  follow. 
They  struck  out  for  the  north-east  to  reach  the  French  settle- 
ments. La  Salle  was  ambushed  and  shot  March  i8,  1687,  by 
a  villainous  member  of  the  company,  leagued  with  other  assas- 
sins, and  his  body  stripped  and  thrown  to  the  wolves.  But 
La  Salle  needed  no  gorgeous  funeral  train,  no  costly  sepul- 
chre to  carry  through  the  ages  to  come  his  illustrious 
name. 

One  of  the  assassin  band,  he  who  served  as  a  decoy,  was  a 
youth  of  sixteen  named  I'Archeveque,  who  later  arrived  in 
New  Mexico,  lived  a  highly  respected  life  there,  and  was 
eventually  killed  at  the  Pawnee  village  with  Villazur.'  L'Ar- 
cheveque,  with  four  others  from  the  dismembered  La  Salle 
expedition,  three  young  men  and  a  girl,  were  found  among 
the  Tejas,  two  years  after  La  Salle's  murder,  by  Alonzo  de 
Leon,  a  Spaniard  who  came  up  into  Texas  from  Coahuila,  one 
of  the  northern  provinces  of  Mexico.  He  ransomed  all  and 
sent  them  to  Mexico.  Three  years  later,  1692,  the  Spaniards 
organised  a  settlement  at  San  Antonio,  and  henceforth  the 
French  and  Spaniards  began  in  a  hostile  way  to  encounter 
each  other  on  these  wide  frontiers.  Iberville,  in  1699,  started 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  the  first  permanent  French 
settlement,  and  the  French  then  rapidly  spread  along  that 
river  and  its  branches,  and  when  the  eighteenth  century  was 
fairly  under  way  they  had  explored  the  country  immediately 
along  the  Mississippi  and  the  regions  between  it  and  Montreal; 
they  had  pushed  far  out  into  the  North-west,  even  to  the 
banks  of  the  Saskatchewan.     Indeed,  a  Frenchman  is  said  to 

^  See  The  Expedition  of  Pedro  de  Villazur,  by  A.  F.  Bandelier,  Papers  of  the 
Archceological  Institute  of  America,  American  Series  V. 


In  the  Heart  of  the  Wilderness — Southern  Utah. 

Pnotograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


I3S 


^136  Breaking  the  Wilderness    * 

have  reached  Hudson  Bay  in  1656.  All  through  these  regions 
were  beaver,  bison,  deer,  panthers,  and  numerous  other  fur- 
bearing  animals.  The  trapping  of  these  and  trading  for  them 
with  the  natives  formed  the  chief  incentive  of  the  Frenchmen, 
just  as  the  search  for  imaginary  mines  and  fabulous  cities 
actuated  the  Spaniards.  The  pursuit  of  the  fur  business 
offered  a  life  of  wild  freedom,  particularly  fascinating  to  many 
Frenchmen,  who  fraternised  with  the  natives  and  were  able 
peacefully  to  travel  from  tribe  to  tribe,  exchanging  European 
wares  for  furs  and  other  property  the  Amerinds  had.  The 
Amerinds  welcomed  these  pedlars,  for  they  wanted  the  goods 
they  brought;  and  numbers  of  them  ranged  the  forests,  finally 
being  collectively  called  Coiireiirs  de  Bois.  They  have  been 
described  as  a  kind  of  outlaw,  but  they  were  not  exactly  that. 
'  Their  lives,  knowing  no  restriction  but  their  own  consciences, 
highly  elastic  like  almost  all  the  consciences  of  that  time,  and 
perhaps  this,  were  not  always  models  of  propriety,  but  they 
were  in  general  probably  little  worse  than  the  throat-cutting 
gentlemen  who  composed  a  large  part  of  the  several  samples 
of  the  European  nations  which  were  striving  to  murder  each 
other,  and  incidentally  the  natives,  for  the  purpose  of  acquir- 
ing sole  possession  of  everything  in  sight.  In  the  perusal  of 
the  history  of  the  development  of  this  continent  it  seems 
almost  ludicrous  to  describe  the  natives  particularly  as  the 
savages.  One  could  fill  a  library  with  volumes  detailing  the 
murderous  brutality  of  the  white  race,  not  only  in  dealing  with 
the  natives,  but  with  each  other.  The  native  was  hardly  more 
than  a  good  second  in  rapine  and  butchery,  even  when  he  was 
employed  by  one  side  or  the  other  to  raise  slaughter  to  a  fine 
art. 

In  1669  the  British  formed  a  settlement  in  the  shape  of  a 
fur-trading  post  on  the  coast  of  Hudson  Bay.  This  was  the 
first  of  a  series  of  establishments  founded  by  "The  Governor 
and  Company  of  Adventurers  of  England  Trading  into  Hud- 
son's Bay,"  a  company  which,  because  of  its  masterly  control, 
wise  management,  general  fairness  to  the  natives,  and  com- 
plete efficiency,  was  highly  successful  and  of  wide  and  long- 
continued  influence. 


Q 
o 


if 


?i 


s 

2 


^3^  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

As  the  eighteenth  century  opened,  the  French  seemed  to 
be  in  the  lead.  They  claimed  and  controlled  Canada  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  by  1710  there  were 
many  French  colonies  and  posts  on  the  banks  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Eight  years  later  Bienville  founded  New  Orleans,  and 
two  after  that  Antoine  Crozat  received  from  the  King  a 
grant  of  the  privilege  of  exclusive  trade  in  Louisiana,  a  privi- 
lege which  he  relinquished  in  1717,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
Compagnie  d'Orient,  or,  as  it  also  was  called,  Law's  Mississippi 
Company.  It  was  so  held  for  fifteen  years,  when  it  was  gov- 
erned as  a  French  province.  By  1722  the  French  had  estab- 
lished a  fort  on  the  Missouri  called  Orleans,  about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  above  the  mouth,  by  some  authorities  said  to 
have  been  the  result  of  the  Spanish  expedition  under  Villazur, 
which  was  destroyed,  according  to  some  reports,  in  an  attempt 
to  annihilate  the  Missouris,  who  were  friendly  to  the  French. 
But  the  Spaniards  claimed  that  the  French  instigated  the  at- 
tack upon  their  1720  expedition  to  the  Platte ;  and  the  French, 
it  appears,  claimed  that  the  Spanish  were  striving  to  wipe  out 
their  allies. 

There  were  now  open  into  the  interior  two  great  water 
highways,  one  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  other  by  the  Missis- 
sippi-Missouri. Transportation  was  almost  exclusively  by 
boat,  hence  the  waterways  were  seldom  departed  from  for  any 
great  distance,  and  the  immense  tract  lying  west  of  the  Mis- 
souri and  upper  Mississippi  was  still  an  unknown  country. 
From  time  to  time  rumours  were  repeated  of  a  huge  river 
which  flowed  towards  the  Sea  of  the  West,  but  the  traders  did 
not  always  heed  the  tales  of  the  natives.  As  early  as  1716 
there  was  a  definite  statement  that  "towards  the  source  (of 
the  Mississippi)  there  is  in  the  highlands  a  river  that  leads  to 
the  western  ocean."  Whether  some  Frenchman  had  made  the 
journey  or  not  is  unknown,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  a 
daring  coureur  de  bois  had  slipped  along  from  tribe  to  tribe 
and  finally  arrived  at  the  Pacific. 

In  1728  there  was  a  trader  at  Lake  Nipigon — Sieur  de 
Li  Verendrye,  a  Frenchman,  to  whom  the  natives  told  such 
l)ositive  tales  about  this  great  river  flowing  to  the  Sea  of  the 


Verendrye  139 

West,  that  he  determined  to  explore  it.'  He  laid  his  plans 
before  Beauharnois,  then  Governor  of  Canada,  who  was  favour- 
ably impressed  by  the  story,  and  also  by  a  map  which  Veren- 
drye's  Amerind  guide  had  drawn  for  him.  An  expedition  of 
fifty  men  was  fitted  out,  which  left  Montreal  in  1731  under  the 
command  of  Verendrye's  sons  and  nephew.  The  party  seem 
not  to  have  moved  directly  for  the  river  they  intended  to 
examine,  but  spent  a  number  of  years  exploring,  trading,  and 
trapping  in  the  North-west  country.  Finally,  in  1738,  they 
built  an  advance  post.  Fort  La  Reine,  on  the  Assiniboine, 
whence  they  continued  explorations  north  and  south.  In  the 
latter  direction  they  ascended  the  Souris,  or  Mouse,  River, 
and  at  length  arrived  in  the  country  of  the  Mandans,  on  the 
Missouri,  at  the  great  bend  to  the  south,  in  what  is  now  North 
Dakota,  antedating  in  the  region  Lewis  and  Clark  by  over 
threescore  years.  This  was  in  1738.  Again  in  1742  the 
company  arrived  at  the  Missouri  under  the  command  of  the 
eldest  son  and  his  brother,  passed  the  Yellowstone  River,  and 
on  January  i,  1743,  came  in  sight  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
perhaps  the  Big  Horn  range,  probably  the  first  white  men  to 
see  them  from  this  direction;  that  is,  north  of  about  the  38th 
parallel,  where  the  Spaniards  had  been.  They  climbed  these 
mountains,  and  appear  to  have  proceeded  westward,  perhaps 
as  far  as  Wind  River,  where  they  remained  some  time  in  the 
country  of  the  Snakes,  hearing  of  another  river  farther  south 
called  Karoskiou,  probably  the  head  of  the  Colorado,  now 
named  Green  River.  They  were  then  within  about  two  hun- 
dred miles  of  the  point  reached,  twenty-three  years  later, 
by  Escalante,  and  not  much  farther  from  the  locality  on 
Grand  River  arrived  at  in  1765  by  Don  Juan  Maria  de 
Ribera. 

Owing  to  a  war  between  the  Snakes  and  a  tribe  to  the 
southward  named  Arcs,  they  were  unable  to  go  on  and  re- 
turned to  the  upper  Missouri  in  May,  1743,  somewhere  erect- 
ing a  stone  monument  to  commemorate  their  entrance  into  the 

'  Sieur  de  la  Verendrye  and  His  Sons,  etc.,  by  Rev.  E.  D.  Neill,  in  Contribu- 
tions, Montana  Historical  Society,  vol.  i.,  p.  267.  See  also  Report  on  Canadian 
A  rchivcs,  Douglas  Brymner,  and  Thwaite's  Rocky  Mountain  Exploration,  p.  27  etscq. 


tHo  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

region.'  Having  done  this  they  went  to  the  Saskatchewan 
valley  by  way  of  their  Fort  La  Reine.  Jealousy  of  their  success 
and  changes  in  the  governorship  of  Canada  resulted  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  Verendryes,  but  Jonquire  later,  coming  to  the 
head  of  the  government,  determined  to  profit  by  their  investi- 
gations and  planned  two  expeditions  to  the  Pacific,  one  over 
the  course  Verendrye  had  pursued,  and  the  other  by  the 
waters  of  the  Saskatchewan.  These  appear  to  have  had  little 
success,  yet  some  of  the  men  reached  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  were  there  in  1753.  The  war  with  England  then  pre- 
vented further  organised  explorations  by  the  French.  Several 
accounts  of  the  existence  of  a  large  river  beginning  at  the  head 
of  the  Missouri  and  flowing  west  to  the  Pacific  had  been  given 
by  the  Amerinds,  as  already  noted,  Dupratz  having  heard  one 
from  a  native  of  the  Yazoo  country.^  This  man  said  he  had 
himself  ascended  the  Missouri  to  its  source  and  there  found 
this  other  river,  which  he  followed  for  some  distance,  wars  pre- 
venting him  from  going  through  to  the  ocean  into  which  he 
was  told  it  entered.  Several  maps  of  about  1750  gave  a  sup- 
posed course  of  this  river,  which  was  called  the  Great  River 
of  the  West.  Jonathan  Carver''  also  told  of  this  stream,  called 
the  Oregon,  in  his  book  describing  the  travels  he  made  in 
1766-68  into  the  region  of  the  upper  Mississippi;  but  he  did 
not  go  there. 3  The  Dane,  Bering,  under  Russian  patronage, 
in  1 741,  had  marked  out  a  path  to  the  New  "World  from  a 
totally  different  direction  from  any  taken  by  the  other  nations ; 
he  came  from  the  West,  from  Kamtchatka,  by  the  far  northern 
route.  The  Russians  followed  and  began  to  explore  down  the 
North-west  coast. 

'  Among  the  papers  of  James  Stuart,  who  was  long  resident  in  that  region, 
was  found  a  memorandum  referring  to  some  monument  "  twenty  feet  in  diameter 
— on  river  bluffs — round  and  run  to  point — spaces  between  boulders  filled  with 
green  grass  and  weeds,"  Contributions ^  Historical  Society  of  Montana^  vol.  i., 
p.  272. 

-  See  Greenhow's  History  of  Oregon  and  Calif ornia,  p.  140,  et  seq.,  second  ed. 

^  IVavels  throughout  the  Jntei'ior  Parts  of  North  America  in  1766-8,  by 
Jonathan  Carver.  The  descriptions  of  native  tribes  contained  in  this  book  are, 
according  to  Greenhow,  not  original,  but  mainly  translations  from  Lahontan. 
Greenho7v,  p.  144,  second  ed. 


St.  Louis  Founded 


141 


Having  triumphed  over  France,  Great  Britain  in  1763  ac- 
quired the  whole  of  Canada,  all  of  Louisiana  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi except  New  Orleans,  and  the  Spanish  claims  in  Florida. 
They  now  controlled  the  entire  continent  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Dutch  having  long  before  surrendered.  France 
published  the  next  year  a  secret  cession  two  years  before  of  all 


Great  Fountain  Geyser — Yellowstone  Park. 

From  Wonderland,  igoi — Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi  to  Spain,  and  Spain  obtain- 
ing New  Orleans  also  in  1769,  France  was  thrown  completely 
off  the  continent.  In  1764,  at  the  time  France  announced  the 
cession  to  Spain,  La  Clede  founded  St.  Louis  on  the  site  where 
it  now  stands,  a  settlement  that  henceforth  became  the  depart- 
ing point  for  the  great  Wilderness.  Great  Britain  renounced 
all  claim  to  lands  south-west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  vast 
territory  of  North  America  was  now  divided  between  Great 
Britain,  Spain,  and  Russia,  the  latter  on  the  north-west,  Spain 
on  the  south-west,  and  Great  Britain  on  the  east.  Spain  was 
endeavouring  to  clinch  its  hold  on  the  Californian  coast  and 


%' 


42  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

the  regions  to  northward,  and  several  vessels  were  sent  out  in 
that  direction.  One  of  these,  commanded  by  Bruno  Heceta, 
returning  from  more  northern  shores  on  the  evening  of  August 
17,  1775,  came  to  a  great  bay  where  a  current  was  discovered 
setting  out  from  the  land  with  such  power  that  Heceta  thought 
he  had  found  either  some  great  river  or  some  connection  with 
another  sea.  The  Strait  of  Fuca  was  then  supposed  to  join 
the  Atlantic,  under  the  old  title  of  the  fabled  Strait  of  Anian, 
and  he  also  thought  he  might  be  at  the  mouth  of  this,  although 
his  reckoning  did  not  agree  with  that  of  Fuca.  In  reality  he 
had  discovered  thus  vaguely  the  mouth  of  the  River  of  the 
West,  now  the  Columbia.  He  called  the  place  the  Bahia  de  la 
Asuncion,  but  later  charts  mark  it  the  Inlet  of  Heceta,  while 
the  supposed  river  is  put  down  as  Rio  de  San  Roque.  Aguilar, 
who  commanded  one  of  Vizcaino's  ships  in  1603,  went  north 
of  Cape  Mendocino  to  the  mouth  of  a  great  river,  which  he 
could  not  enter  on  account  of  the  current.  This  was  probably 
the  Columbia.  Thus  from  sea  and  land  the  existence  of  a  large 
river  in  this  quarter  began  to  be  understood.  Owing  to  the 
line  of  fierce  white-caps  formed  by  the  tides  breaking  on  the 
great  bar,  extending  across  the  mouth  of  this  river,  even  now, 
as  one  views  the  entrance  from  the  deck  of  his  approaching 
ship,  after  government  execution  of  a  large  amount  of  admir- 
able engineering,  it  presents  a  most  impracticable  looking 
channel,  the  white  foam  appearing  to  form  a  continuous  line. 
At  low  water,  with  a  sea  running,  the  place  is  still  one  of  diffi- 
cult passage,  and  reminds  of  Gray,  the  bold  sailor  who  first 
steered  through  it.  Heceta,  however,  did  not  hesitate  from 
timidity,  he  was  a  Spaniard,  but  his  officers  dissuaded  him 
from  making  an  attempt  to  enter  on  account  of  their  unfit 
condition. 

Once  across  the  bar,  the  broad  bay  and  river-mouth  offer 
easy  navigation,  and  it  is  a  beautiful  voyage,  though  a  short 
one,  up  to  the  site  of  the  fine,  prosperous  American  city  which 
now  stands  at  this  gateway,  where  the  Far  West  opens  into 
the  Far  East. 

As  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  fairly  de- 
veloped, an  event  took  place  which  perhaps,  influenced  the 


Revolution 


143 


destinies  of  man  more  than  any  other  of  modern  times.  Garces 
and  Escalante  had  barely  completed  their  entradas  before  the 
guns  of  the  American  Revolution  had  for  ever  shattered  the 
fetters  of  a  new  people  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  where  a 
youthful  giant  sprang  into  being,  a  portent  for  Spain  of  great 
danger.    The  Spaniards  posted  their  sentinels  facing  that  way. 


CHAPTER   VIII 


The  United  States  Borders  the  Wilderness — American  Ships  to  the  Pacific  Coast 
— The  North-West  Company — Mackenzie  Spans  the  Continent — Meares  and 
Vancouver  Baffled  by  Breakers — Captain  Robert  Gray,  Victor — The  Colum- 
bia at  Last — The  Louisiana  Purchase  a  Pig  in  a  Poke,  and  a  Boundless  Wil- 
derness— Claims  All  Round  to  the  Centre — The  Perfidious  Napoleon — The 
Spanish  Sentinel  Steps  Back. 


SPAIN  had  good  reason  to  turn  a  watchful  eye  on  the 
people  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  No  sooner  was  the  war 
for  independence  triumphantly  concluded  than  they  began 
to  look  intently  toward  the  vast  Wilderness  that  made  up 
the  bulk  of  the  continent,  a  region  so  little  understood, 
and  the  object  of  so  many  uncertain,  conflicting,  and  ill- 
founded  claims.  Russia  was  beginning  to  assert  claims  from 
the  north-west,  Spain  had  acquired  the  rights  and  claims  of 
France,  and,  with  her  own,  wanted  everything  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  while  Great  Britain  advanced  from  the  north-east. 
The  middle  road  was  open  to  the  Americans.  The  new  nation 
managed  its  affairs  with  great  skill.  Though  Spain  and  France 
combined  to  obstruct  the  westward  movement  of  the  young 
country,  and  particularly  to  prevent  it  from  securing  any  ter- 
ritory whatever  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  so  as  to 
shut  it  off  from  free  navigation,  the  treaty  of  1783  gave  the 
United  States  all  the  country  east  of  the  great  river  and  south 
of  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo.  Notwith- 
standing opposition,  the  new  Government  positively  held 
a  huge  area,  and  was  next-door  neighbour  to  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi  as  well  as  upon  the  threshold  of  the  great  undefined 

144 


The  Fur  Trade 


H5 


Wilderness,  known  as  Louisiana,  bordering  the  Father  of  Waters 
on  the  west. 

This  immense  extension  of  their  domain  gave  a  fresh  im- 
pulse to  American  exploration  and  settlement.  They  loved 
the  wild  woods  and  came  over  the  crest  of  the  Alleghanies  in 
large  numbers,  erecting  their  log  dwellings  here,  there,  and 
everywhere,  till  it  was  not  long  before  the  fertile  region  be- 
tween the  Mississippi  and  the  eastern  mountains  was  filling 
with  settlements. 


Summits  of  the  Backbone. 
Gray's  Peak,  14,341  feet.     Torrey's  Peak, 


[4,336  feet. 


Photograph  by  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Many  of  these  people  were  trappers  and  hunters.  The  fur 
trade  was  yearly  becoming  a  greater  business;  hundreds,  de- 
spite danger  or  privation,  were  eager  to  pursue  wherever  it 
might  lead.  The  pressure  of  civilised  life  with  its  rigid  finan- 
cial demands  was,  and  is,  so  intense  that  whenever  a  channel 
of  escape  opens,  the  flow  through  it  is  as  natural  as  that  of 
water  through  a  puncture  in  the  bottom  of  the  kettle.  There 
were  large  profits  to  be  made  in  furs,  though  it  was  usually  the 
organiser  and  business  manager  who  reaped  the  full  rewards. 


1 46  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

The  Pacific  coast  offered  in  this  line  brilliant  prospects,  and 
American  vessels  pushed  around  Cape  Horn  and  sailed  up  the 
western  shores  to  secure  a  share  of  the  trade  of  that  region. 
Spain,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia  were  also  active  there  in  the 
fur  business,  as  well  as  in  that  of  "claiming."  The  Americans 
then  had  no  claims  in  that  quarter. 

The  year  following  the  agreement  on  the  western  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  1784,  found  a  number  of  Montreal  mer- 
chants organising  with  the  determination  of  participating  in 
the  rich  returns  of  the  fur  trade.;  a  business  where  a  penny 
whistle  was  traded  for  a  gold  dollar.  These  men  of  Montreal 
formed  an  association  which  they  entitled  the  North-west 
Company,  consolidating  with  it  a  number  of  small  rival  con- 
cerns which  for  some  years  had  been  operating  separately,  and 
often  disastrously,  for  they  were  frequently  at  war.  The 
North-west  Company  intended  to  occupy  the  country  beyond 
Lake  Superior  and  oppose  there  the  increasing  power  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.  One  of  the  men  taken  into  this  part- 
nership was  Alexander  Mackenzie.  He  was  the  man  for  the 
hour.  He  proceeded  to  the  far  shores  of  the  Saskatchewan, 
where  posts  had  been  established  beyond  those  of  the  Veren- 
dryes  and  earlier  Frenchmen,  whose  former  presence  was  now 
marked  only  by  the  names  they  had  applied  to  the  natural 
features  of  the  country.  But  though  the  Verendryes  were 
forgotten,  the  voyageur  was  still  a  chief  factor  in  travel  and  in 
trapping  operations,  and  the  cJimisons  yet  echoed  through  the 
forests  of  that  wild  landscape,  where,  in  the  words  of  Butler,^ 

*'  there  are  rivers  whose  single  lengths  roll  through  twice  a  thousand 
miles  of  shoreland  ;  prairies  over  which  a  rider  can  steer  for  months 
without  resting  his  gaze  on  aught  save  the  dim  verge  of  the  ever- 
shifting  horizon  ;  mountains  rent  by  rivers,  ice-topped,  glacier 
seared,  impassable  ;  forests  whose  sombre  pines  darken  a  region 
half  as  large  as  Europe;  sterile,  treeless  wilds,  whose  400,000  square 
miles  lie  spread  in  awful  desolation.  ...  In  summer,  a  land  of 
sound,  a  land  echoing  with  the  voices  of  birds,  the  ripple  of  run- 
ning water,  the  mournful  music  of  the  waving  pine  branch;  in  win- 

'  The  Wild  Northland,  Sir  William  Francis  Butler.     Barnes  edition. 


Fort  Chepewyan  i47 

ter,  a  land  of  silence,  a  land  hushed  to  its  inmost  depths  by  the 
weight  of  ice,  the  thick  falling  snow,  the  intense  rigour  of  a  merciless 
cold." 

This  was  the  country  the  trapper  first  entered  on  his  way 
to  the  Wilderness  we  are  specially  considering;  here  where  the 
voyageur  received  some  of  the  experience  that  made  him  so 
valuable  in  this  kind  of  work,  the  voyageur  whom  Harmon 
elaborately  describes  ^  as  lively,  fickle,  cheerful  in  privation, 
talkative,  thoughtless,  unrevengeful,  not  brave,  deceitful, 
smooth,  polite,  dishonest,  unveracious,  generous,  ungrateful, 
obedient,  and  unfaithful.  Yet  he  was  a  man  who  served  the 
time  admirably,  who  braved  many  dangers,  whose  labours 
helped  more  than  those  of  any  other  single  element  to  open 
the  pathways  of  the  Wilderness. 

By  1778  the  British  had  founded  a  trading-post  within  forty 
miles  of  Lake  Athabasca,  and  ten  years  after  one  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Athabasca  itself.  This  was  named  Fort  Chepewyan, 
and  historically  is  of  great  prominence,  as  it  was  the  head- 
quarters of  Alexander  Mackenzie  for  eight  years,  and  was  his 
starting-point  on  both  the  expeditions  which  are  recorded 
among  the  remarkable  exploits  of  the  modern  world. '^  The 
North-west  Company  was  making  systematic  war  upon  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  in  order  to  gain  advantage  for  his 
association  Mackenzie  undertook  the  two  expeditions,  which 
practically  solved  the  geographical  problems  of  the  North-west 
and  determined  the  impossibility  of  the  existence  of  any 
north-west  passage.  In  1789  he  descended,  as  far  as  its  dis- 
charge into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  river  that  now  bears  his 
name,  but  he  was  not  the  first  to  reach  the  Arctic  overland, 
for  Samuel  Hearne,  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  eighteen 
years  before,  had  touched  the  shore  some  miles  east  of  the 
Mackenzie,  having  first  discovered  Great  Slave  Lake. 

These  journeys  proved  beyond  question  that  the  Straits  of 

*  yotirnal  of  Voyages  and  Travels,  Daniel  Williams  Harmon.      Barnes  &  Co. 
edition. 

*  Voyages   through   North  America,   Alexander    Mackenzie.      Barnes   &   Co. 
edition. 


148  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Anian,  which  had  prominently  figured  on  maps  up  to  this  time, 
were  a  myth.  Cook,  who  had  been  along  the  north-west  coast, 
had  expressed  strong  doubts  of  the  existence  of  any  waterway 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  Mackenzie's  other  journey 
was  of  equal,  if  not  greater,  importance.  It  was  in  1793  that 
the  start  was  made,  and  he  followed  up  Peace  River  till,  by 
means  of  the  chasm  it  cleaves  in  the  great  chain  to  free  its 
waters  for  their  descent  to  the  Mackenzie,  he  passed  entirely 
through  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  with  admirable  determina- 
tion and  perseverance  reached  the  shore  of  the  Pacific  just 
north  of  Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  completing  the  first  traverse 
on  record  of  the  North  American  continent  above  Mexico. 
One  river,  that  he  followed  down  for  some  distance,  which 
was  called  by  the  natives  Tacoutche  Tesse,  he  thought  was 
the  head  of  the  Columbia",  which  had  obtained  this  name  the 
year  before.  The  Tacoutche  Tesse,  however,  was  not  the 
Columbia,  as  was  some  years  later  discovered,  but  the  river 
now  called  Fraser. 

Navigators  had  been  at  work  minutely  examining  the 
Pacific  coast  of  the  Wilderness, — La  Perouse,  Dixon,  Meares, 
and  others.  Although  Meares,  for  Great  Britain,  in  1788, 
searched  for  the  Rio  de  San  Roque  as  laid  down  on  Spanish 
charts,  according  to  Heceta's  observations,  and  although  he 
actually  entered  the  bay  where  it  disembogues,  he  departed 
without  finding  it,  because  the  breakers  were  clearly  seen  by 
him  to  extend  entirely  across  the  shore  end  of  the  inlet.  In 
consequence  he  applied  to  the  place  the  title  of  Deception 
Bay,  and  the  prominent  headland  just  north  of  it  he  called  by 
the  name  it  still  bears,  Cape  Disappointment.  He  declared 
positively  that  there  was  no  such  river  as  the  San  Roque, 
which  illustrates  the  ease  with  which  mistakes  are  made,  even 
by  men  of  intelligence.  It  was  a  fortunate  error  for  the 
United  States,  as  now  neither  the  Spanish,  who  were  still 
clinging  to  the  northern  coasts,  nor  the  British,  who  were 
opposing  them,  had  obtained  any  right  of  discovery  in  this 
great  river.  No  captain  as  yet  had  possessed  the  insight,  or 
the  courage,  or  the  resources,  to  dash  through  the  formidable 
line  of  fierce  combers  and  open  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  to 


O  >5 


§  150  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

the  world.  But  its  day  was  soon  to  arrive.  The  same  year 
that  Meares  in  disappointment  turned  his  prow  away  from  the 
entrance,  an  American  merchant  captain,  Robert  Gray,  of 
Boston,  in  his  trading  vessel,  the  Washington,  had  nearly 
foundered  in  trying  to  force  the  passage.  After  this  Gray  ex- 
changed ships  with  Kendrick,  a  captain  in  the  service  of  the 
same  company,  and  in  the  Columbia  made  a  trip  to  China 
and  then  home.  Kendrick,  meanwhile,  with  the  Washing- 
ton, put  into  the  Strait  of  Fuca  and  pretty  well  examined 
this  body  of  water,  which  Gray  before  him  had  entered  to 
the  distance  of  fifty  miles. 

After  a  while,  1792,  Gray  came  back  to  the  north-west  coast 
in  the  Columbia  and  met  at  the  Strait  of  Fuca  the  great  Eng- 
lish navigator  Vancouver,  who  had  been  sent  to  make  charts 
of  the  coast,  a  work  which  he  carried  out  so  admirably  that  it 
has  been  the  basis  for  all  charts  ever  since.  Vancouver  had 
already  been  in  Deception  Bay  before  meeting  Gray,  so  that 
when  the  latter  described  the  place  he  had  tried  to  enter  with 
the  Washington,  and  stated  his  belief  in  the  existence  of  a 
large  river  there,  a  belief  perhaps  increased  by  the  statements 
of  Jonathan  Carver,  he  refused  to  believe.  Vancouver  had 
seen  the  breakers  extending  "two  or  three  miles  into  the 
ocean,"  and  though  he  noticed  that  the  sea  there  changed  to 
river  water  he  thought  it  only  from  some  minor  stream,  and  did 
not  consider  the  subject  of  any  importance.  So,  like  Meares, 
he  had  turned  his  back  upon  it,  and  now  he  went  on  to  survey 
Puget  Sound.  Gray,  however,  was  of  a  different  mind,  and 
he  determined  to  return  to  the  place  to  explore.  It  almost 
seems,  indeed,  that  Fate  had  appointed  this  discovery  for 
him.  When  he  arrived  there  he  did  not  hesitate,  but  prepared 
his  ship  for  the  passage,  and  at  eight  A.M.  May  11,  1792,  he 
ran  in  "east-north-east  between  the  breakers,  having  from  five 
to  seven  fathoms  of  water.  When  we  were  over  the  bar  we 
found  this  to  be  a  large  river  of  fresh  water,  up  which  we 
steered."  Thus,  in  spite  of  everything  and  with  no  effort  or 
desire  to  do  it,  the  United  States  had  acquired  by  right  of  dis- 
covery a  claim  on  this  far-away  country.  The  matter,  which 
at  the  time  was  little  thought  of,  proved  afterwards  of  con- 


Manuel  Lisa  151 

siderable  value.  When  Gray  sailed  out  of  the  river,  which  he 
was  able  to  accomplish  only  after  several  attempts,  he  gave  to 
the  river  the  name  of  his  ship — Columbia.  For  some  years  the 
name  of  Oregon,  by  which  Carver  had  described  it  as  he  heard 
the  account  from  the  natives,  was  also -applied,  as  well  as  the 
other  title— River  of  the  West, — but  all  at  length  gave  way 
before  the  name  bestowed  by  the  discoverer,  whose  action  in 
running  the  bar  was  all  themore  praiseworthy  since  other  skilful 
navigators  had  failed  to  fathom  the  secret  of  Deception  Bay. 

The  following  year  Mackenzie  arrived  on  the  coast,  just 
after  Vancouver  had  passed  north  in  pursuing  his  excellent 
survey.  Thus  little  by  little  the  white  man  was  permanently 
closing  in  on  the  great  central  Wilderness.  In  1792-93  Todd, 
a  Scotchman  with  a  special  grant  from  Spain,  made  several 
journeys  from  St.  Louis  up  the  Missouri,  and  Fidler,  in  the 
employ  of  the  North-west  Company,  travelled  from  Fort  Buck- 
ingham on  the  Saskatchewan  south-west  to  the  foot  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  down  through  regions  drained  by  the 
Missouri.  Dorion,  afterwards  with  Lewis  and  Clark,  had 
lived  with  the  Sioux  since  1784  or  earlier,  and  there  were 
many  others  like  him. 

Tfading-posts  were  established  here  and  there  on  the 
Missouri;  Pawnee  House,*  or  Trudeau's  House  in  1796-97, 
near  the  site  of  Fort  Randall,  was  occupied  by  that  trader, 
and  a  year  or  two  earlier  Fort  Charles  was  built  six  miles  below 
Omaha.  Trappers  and  traders  were  constantly  pushing  out 
into  the  Wilderness.  St.  Louis  was  developing  from  a  mere 
village  to  a  town  of  importance,  and  some  of  the  characters 
intimately  identified,  a  few  years  later,  with  the  development 
of  the  region  were  already  there,  notably  the  famous  Manuel 
Lisa,  a  Spaniard,  shrewd,  daring,  and  intelligent,  speaking 
with  difficulty  French  and  English,  who  made  many  enemies, 
and  who  feared  no  man.  His  name  is  a  part  of  the  history  of 
the  breaking  of  the  Wilderness.     As  the  eighteenth  century 

'  Fur-trading  establishments  were  called  forts  or  houses,  the  latter  term  being 
more  particularly  used  in  the  more  northern  regions,  though  fort  was  employed 
there  also.  An  excellent  impression  of  the  life  at  one  of  these  posts  may  be  ob- 
tained from  Stewart  Edward  White's  novel,  Conjuror's  House, 


gi52  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

drew  to  a  close  this  Wilderness  had  been  completely  circum- 
navigated. Two  and  a  half  centuries  had  now  gone  by  since 
Coronado  made  his  celebrated  journey.  Ships  had  passed 
along  the  western  confines;  trappers  had  penetrated  here  and 
there  across  the  eastern  part ;  Escalante  had  made  his  entrance 
north  almost  to  Salt  Lake;  yet  the  Wilderness  remained  the 
Wilderness  still. 

Events  were  now  to  occur  that  would  affect  the  Wilderness 
more  than  anything  which  up  to  this  time  had  taken  place. 
Spain  in  1800  secretly  transferred  to  France  the  great  region 
called  Louisiana,  the  Spaniards  to  remain  in  possession  till 
such  time  as  it  pleased  France  to  assume  direction  of  the  ter- 
ritory. About  two  years  passed  before  this  transfer  was  pub- 
lished, and  meanwhile,  though  Napoleon  had  contemplated 
putting  a  large  army  there,  circumstances  interfered.  Having 
had  an  agreement  with  the  United  States  by  which  the  latter 
were  permitted  to  use  New  Orleans  as  a  port  of  deposit,  Spain 
reversed  this,  and  the  relations  between  these  countries  were 
thenceforward  not  the  pleasantest.  Spain  declined  to  renew 
this  privilege  on  the  ground  that  the  country  belonged  to 
France  and  she  had  no  right  to  do  it.  Thereupon  the  Ameri- 
can Government  endeavoured  to  purchase  the  lands  on  the 
east  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  West  Florida  and  New  Orleans, 
and  Napoleon,  evidently  discovering  that  he  would  be  unable 
to  carry  out  his  plans  with  regard  to  Louisiana,  and  notwith- 
standing his  solemn  pledge  to  Spain  that  he  would  never  part 
with  it,  offered  the  whole  to  the  United  States.  The  offer 
was  accepted,  and  the  sum  of  fifteen  million  dollars  was  finally 
agreed  upon  as  the  purchase  price.  Communication  was  slow ; 
events  were  rapid ;  so  that  Lussat,  who  had  been  sent  as 
French  Governor  to  New  Orleans,  to  accept  the  territory  from 
Spain,  received  instructions  that,  instead  of  holding  it,  he  was 
to  transfer  it  to  the  Americans.  No  one  was  more  surprised 
or  chagrined  than  the  French  representative.  Spain  protested 
that  the  transfer  was  not  in  conformity  with  the  French  agree- 
ment, but  it  availed  nothing,  and  the  Spaniards  at  first  were 
inclined  to  refuse  to  give  up  the  land.  But  on  the  30th  of 
November,  1803,  Louisiana  was  formally  surrendered  by  Spain 


A  Pig  in  a  Poke  153 

to  France  and  twenty  days  later  France  gave  possession  to  the 
United  States.  Next  to  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  acquisi- 
tion of  this  vast  region  was  the  most  important  occurrence  in 
the  life  of  the  Americans.  Yet  it  was  a  veritable  "pig  in  a 
poke"  which  they  bought,  for  not  only  were  its  bounds  un- 
determined, except  on  the  east,  where  it  met  the  Republic,  but 
the  character  of  the  domain,  for  the  most  part,  as  is  evident 
from  the  preceding  pages,  was  entirely  unknown.  Yet  by  this 
purchase  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  was  permanently  secured 
to  the  American  people,  and  this  was  an  object  of  paramount 
importance;  the  nature  of  the  Wilderness  was  secondary.  On 
the  part  of  the  Americans  there  had  been  a  growing  impulse 
to  investigate  the  great  wild  realm  that  so  invitingly  rolled  away 
from  their  very  feet,  and  had  the  purchase  not  been  consum- 
mated it  is  probable  they  would  nevertheless  soon  have  passed 
over  into  the  forbidden  land.'  A  vast  amount  of  future  diffi- 
culty and  war,  for  it  takes  as  little  to  start  a  disastrous  war 
among  the  whites  as  ever  it  did  among  the  Amerinds,  was 
permanently  avoided. 

The  acquisition,  indeed,  was  a  boundless  area.  The  very 
first  thing  to  be  accomplished  was  to  gain  some  knowledge  of 
its  limits  and  possibilities.  As  for  limits,  it  had,  as  noted,  but 
vague  ones,  yet  on  all  maps  showing  the  territory  purchased 
at  this  time  the  lines  delimiting  it,  which  were  arrived  at  only 
after  years  of  diplomatic  discussion,  are  presented  as  though 
they  had  existence  at  the  moment  of  purchase  and  had  been 
measured  off  like  a  town  lot.  As  originally  ceded  by  France 
to  Spain  and  again  by  Spain  to  France  there  were  no  defined 
limits  whatever  other  than  the  Mississippi  River  on  the  east, 
though  France  claimed  to  the  Rio  Grande.  The  United 
States  acquired  the  same  hazy  demarkation.  The  map  on 
page  154  shows  in  the  dotted  portion  what  the  claims  were  at 
the  time  of  purchase,  in  1803,  as  well  as  the  defined  boundaries 
that  eventually  were  established. 

^  Several  expeditions,  indeed,  had  been  proposed :  George  Rogers  Clark  in 
1783  ;  John  Ledyard  from  Paris  to  Kamtchatka,  thence  to  Nootka  Sound,  thence 
across  the  continent  to  the  United  States,  1784  ;  and  Michaux  referred  to  in  the 
next  chapter.     These  amounted  to  nothing. 


Claims  and  Claims  155 

The  Spanish  claims  ran  up  the  western  side  of  the  con- 
tinent indefinitely,  and  thence  eastward  indefinitely.  Great 
Britain  considered  as  belonging  to  her  everything  west,  south, 
and  north  of  Winnipeg  Lake  indefinitely,  and  everything  east, 
north,  and  south  from  Nootka  Sound*  indefinitely.  Russia 
thought  that  the  continent  from  Bering  Strait  down  to  the 
Columbia  River  and  eastward  indefinitely  belonged  to  her, 
while  the  United  States  on  their  part  believed  the  Louisiana 
they  had  taken  off  Napoleon's  hands  extended  to  the  Rio 
Grande  on  the  south-west ;  and  on  the  west  and  north-west,  and 
on  the  north  as  well,  to  an  undefined  distance.  The  task  was 
now  to  fit  these  indefinite  bounds  against  each  other,  and  it 
was  a  task  that  consumed  years  of  diplomacy.  In  pursuance 
of  this  design,  President  Jefferson  projected  an  expedition 
which  was  to  traverse  the  continent  where  no  white  men  as  yet 
had  penetrated — the  region  of  the  Columbia.  It  was  destined 
to  take  a  first  place  among  the  explorations  of  the  New  World, 
and  to  weld  into  one  the  names  of  two  admirable  men,  and 
this  indelibly  into  the  fabric  of  American  history. 

The  Spanish  sentinel  had  challenged,  but  the  challenge  was 
unheeded.  He  was  obliged  to  step  back;  and  other  backward 
steps  were  in  store  for  him^ 


CHAPTER   IX 

Jefferson's  Hobby — Two  Noblemen — An  Indefinite  Transaction — Expedition  to 
the  Wilderness — Fort  Mandan — The  Roche  Jaune  and  the  First  View  of  the 
Great  Range — The  Long-Lost  Sister — Depths  of  the  Unknown — Starvation 
on  the  Trail — Music  of  the  Breakers — Fort  Clatsop — The  Return — Medicine 
Men  Again — Two  Natives  Shot — Premature  Death  of  the  Captain. 


THE  mighty  Wilderness,  which  like  a  tennis-ball  had  been 
tossed  back  and  forth  between  the  European  kings,  was 
of  particular  interest  to  one  of  the  foremost  statesmen  t)f  the 
new  Republic,  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  pondered  on  its  mys- 
teries and  on  ways  of  fathoming  their  fascinating  depths.  As 
early  as  1792  he  had  proposed  to  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  the  raising  of  a  subscription  to  send  a  small  party  to 
the  Pacific  by  way  of  the  Missouri,  across  the  "Stony  Mount- 
ains "  and  by  the  nearest  river  to  the  sea.  A  very  young 
man,  Meriwether  Lewis  by  name,  eighteen  at  the  time,  asked 
for  the  commission,  but  it  was  given  to  a  French  botanist, 
Andre  Michaux,  who  was  also  eager  to  see  the  Far  West,  and 
who  volunteered  his  services.  The  execution  of  the  plan  was 
frustrated  by  the  French  Minister,  who,  as  Michaux  was  in  the 
employ  of  the  French  Government,  directed  his  path  another 
way. 

When  Jefferson  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States, 
in  1 801,  his  mind,  prepared  therefor,  turned  more  intently  to- 
ward the  problematical  region  bordering  the  American  domain 
on  the  west.  He  now  had  for  private  secretary  the  same 
Meriwether  Lewis  who  had  desired  to  search  the  Western  wilds 

156 


Captain  Lewis  157 

nine  years  earlier.  Lewis  had  risen  to  captain '  in  the  army 
and  had  not  lost  interest  in  the  exploration  he  had  been  unable 
to  undertake  before,  so  when  Jefferson  in  1803  sent  a  confiden- 
tial message  to  Congress  dealing  with  the  subject  of  trading- 
posts  for  the  natives  of  the  sparsely  settled  country  and 
beyond,  and  suggested  an  exploring  expedition  across  the  Wil- 
derness, Lewis  knew  all  about  it,  and  applied  immediately  for 
the  leadership.  He  was  not  yet  twenty-nine,  but  his  character 
was  well  formed.  Jefferson  had  learned  it  thoroughly  in  the 
two  years  he  had  filled  the  position  of  secretary  and  says  he 
was 

"of  courage  undaunted;  possessing  a  firmness  and  perseverance 
of  purpose  which  nothing  but  impossibilities  could  divert  from  its 
direction;  careful  as  a  father  of  those  committed  to  his  charge,  yet 
steady  in  the  maintenance  of  order  and  discipline;  intimate  with  the 
Indian  character,  customs,  and  principles;  habituated  to  the  hunt- 
ing life'^;  guarded,  by  exact  observation  of  the  vegetables  and  ani- 
mals of  his  own  country,  against  losing  time  in  the  description  of 
objects  already  possessed;  honest,  disinterested,  liberal,  of  sound 
understanding,  and  a  fidelity  to  truth  so  scrupulous,  that  whatever 
he  should  report  would  be  as  certain  as  if  seen  by  ourselves:  with 
all  these  qualifications,  as  if  selected  and  implanted  by  nature  in  one 
body  for  this  express  purpose,  I  could  have  no  hesitation  in  confid- 
ing the  enterprise  to  him." 

Congress  approving  the  plan,  Lewis  was  appointed  chief,  and 
no  better  man  for  the  undertaking  could  have  been  found. ^ 

Lewis  selected  as  his  first  assistant,  and  to  act  as  leader 
in  case  of  his  own  disability  or  death,  William  Clark,  foiir 
years  his  senior,  and  a  brother  of  George  Rogers  Clark,  who 
had  captured  Kaskaskia,  Cahokia,  and  the  Illinois  country, 
and  otherwise  distinguished  himself.  Strangely  enough,  in 
his  mental  and  moral  qualities  William  Clark  was  almost  a 

^  He  was  made  a  captain  at  twenty-three. 

^  At  eight  years  Lewis  was  a  "  coon  "  hunter. 

^  See:  Original  Journals  of  the  Le^vis  and  Clark  Expedition,  edited  by  Reuben 
Gold  Thwaites;  Letvis  and  Clark,  Biddle  edition,  edited  by  Elliott  Coues; 
Lewis  and  Clark's  Journals,  Biddle  edition,  reprint,  Barnes  «&  Co.;  The  Trail 
of  Lewis  and  Clark,  O.  D.  Wheeler. 


• 


158  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

duplicate  of  Meriwether  Lewis.  Throughout  the  whole  of 
the  hazardous,  difficult,  toilsome  journey  that  was  now  begun-, 
the  two  men  were  most  devoted  friends,  Lewis  having  not  the 
slightest  fear  that  Clark  would  receive  too  much  credit,  and 
neither  having  the  least  jealousy  of  the  other;  quite  in  con- 
trast with  some  expeditions  of  later  years,  where  the  leader 
must  be  all  in  all.  The  result  was  that  the  world  to-day  exalts 
all  the  more  this  noble  commander-in-chief  because  his  broad 
generosity  forever  linked  with  his,  almost  as  a  single  name,  that 
of  his  subordinate  officer,  so  that  the  great  undertaking  is  not 
the  Lewis,  but  the  Lewis  and  Clark,  expedition.  Clark  was 
to  have  a  commission  as  captain,  but  when  it  came  it  proved 
to  be  mei*ely  lieutenant.  He  took  it,  never  grumbled,  and, 
when  he  returned,  gave  the  commission  back. 

As  far  as  the  head  of  the  Missouri  apparently  they  would 
traverse  no  absolutely  new  ground,  for  as  has  been  noted  the 
Frenchmen  had  been  from  the  Mandan  villages  to  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  the  French-Spanish 
settlement  of  St.  Louis  numbers  of  trappers  and  traders  had 
gone  to  the  Mandan  country,  while  the  chief  road  to  that 
region  had  long  been  from  the  north-east  by  way  of  the  lakes, 
and  the  Assiniboine  where  the  British  fur  companies  had 
established  trading-posts.  .  From  these  points  their  traders 
reached  the  natives  of  the  upper  Missouri  and  Mississippi, 
which  territory  the  British  claimed  as  their  own.  Charles 
Chaboillez,  one  of  the  chief  factors  of  the  North-west  Company, 
was  in  charge  of  Montague  k  la  Basse,  situated  on  the  iVssini- 
boine  probably  about  where  the  Verendryes'  Fort  la  Reine  had 
been.  From  here  he  and  other  traders  often  went  to  the 
Mandan  country  to  deal  with  various  natives  who  made  that 
region  a  rendezvous.  He  had  proposed  to  Daniel  Harmon 
that  they  should  make  a  journey  from  the  Mandan  towns  west 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,'  over  the  course  the  Mandans  "pur- 
sued every  spring  to  meet  and  trade  with  another  tribe  .  .  . 
which  resides  on  the   other   side   of  the   Rocky    Mountain.'* 

'  Journal  of  Voyages,  Barnes  edition,  p.  106. 


Is 


0  I 

i  ^ 

O  I 

I" 

1  ° 


^6o  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

This  expedition  was  never  undertaken,  but  it  indicates  the  de- 
gree of  familiarity  possessed  by  the  Mandans  with  the  Western 
country,  and  shows  how  the  earlier  Frenchmen  found  their  way 
out  at  least  as  far  as  the  Yellowstone,  already  known  as  the 
Roche  Jaune,  a  name  which  in  itself  is  a  suggestion  of  early 
French  visitors  to  the  great  falls  of  that  stream  where  the  gor- 
geous yellow  colouring  is  so  remarkable.  Peter  Fidler,  another 
of  the  British  fur  traders,  had  been  down  from  the  Saskatche- 
wan through  the  area  drained  by  the  headwaters  of  the  Mis- 
souri. A  trader  named  Cruzatte  had  a  post  in  1802  at  a  point 
two  miles  above  old  Council  Bluffs,  so  that  all  through  this 
eastern  portion  of  the  Wilderness  white  men  had  scatteringly 
penetrated.  The  French  had  been  on  the  Saskatchewan  be- 
fore the  eighteenth  century  was  half  over,  and  ten  years  before 
the  American  purchase  of  Louisiana  Mackenzie  had  crossed  to 
the  Pacific  by  way  of  Peace  River  Pass.  But  beyond  the 
Rocky  Mountains  no  one  appears  to  have  been  away  from  the 
coast  besides  Escalante  coming  up  from  Santa  F6  to  Utah 
Lake,  and  Mackenzie  from  Fort  Chepewyan  to  the  shore  of  the 
Pacific  at  King  Island  (lat.  52°  N.),  so  that  the  region  Lewis 
and  Clark  designed  to  enter  beyond  the  mountains  was  abso- 
lutely unknown  territory,  outside  of  the  Amerinds  themselves. 
Captain  Lewis  was  ready  to  start  on  this  traverse  before 
the  official  transfer  of  the  Louisiana  region  from  France  to  the 
United  States  had  been  made.  His  plan  was  to  go  to  La 
Charette,  the  farthest  French  settlement  up  the  Missouri,  a 
few  miles  above  St.  Louis,  and  there  spend  the  winter  of 
1803-04,  the  season  being  so  far  advanced  that  it  was  not 
considered  advisable  to  make  the  final  start  till  spring  opened 
again  and  they  would  have  a  chance  to  go  as  far  as  possible 
before  another  winter  began.  But  the  Spanish  officers  there 
objected  to  Lewis's  entering  the  territory  and  a  camp  was 
made  on  the  American  side  of  the  river,  about  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri.  The  purpose  of  the  expedition  was 
communicated  to  the  foreign  ministers,  and  passports  ob- 
tained from  France  and  Great  Britain.  Spain  was  particularly 
jealous  of  this  movement  or  any  other  which  led  to  crossing 
the  Mississippi,  and  had  opposed  the  right  of  the  United  States 


The  Object  i6i 

by  the  Louisiana  Purchase  to  anything  more  than  the  region 
around  New  Orleans  and  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi;  they 
resented  Napoleon's  selling  even  that.  Hence  Spain  looked 
upon  the  upper  country  as  still  hers.  The  situation,  consider- 
ing the  indefinite  character  of  the  whole  tj-ansact.ion,  was  full  of 
disagreeable  possibilities.  Perhaps  this  was  Napoleon's  inten- 
tion. Therefore  Jefferson  in  his  instructions  to  Captain  Lewis 
particularly  says:  **If  a  superior  force,  authorised  or  unauthor- 
ised, by  a  nation,  should  be  arrayed  against  your  further  pass- 
age, and  inflexibly  determined  to  arrest  it,  you  must  decline 
its  further  pursuit  and  return."  The  British  fur  companies, 
jealous  of  each  other,  were  still  more  jealous  of  encroachments 
on  their  trading  grounds  and  their  attitude  toward  the  ex- 
pedition was  uncertain. 

On  the  30th  of  April,  1803,  the  treaty  with  France  ceding 
Louisiana  was  consummated,  and  on  June  20th  Lewis's  in- 
structions were  signed  and  he  departed  for  La  Charette  by  way 
of  Pittsburg  and  the  Ohio.'  Congress  ratified  the  purchase  on 
October  17th  the  same  year.  Travelling  was  mainly  by  water 
in  those  days,  and  that  seems  to  be  the  reason  why  Lewis 
stuck  to  boat  travelling  when  horses  would  have  been  so  much 
easier  across  the  western  prairies.  They  were  permitted  to  re- 
turn by  sea,  if  necessary  and  possible,  and  Lewis  carried  letters 
of  credit  which  would  have  obtained  money  for  him  in  any 
port,  or  on  any  ship,  the  world  round.  The  object  of  the  ex- 
ploration as  announced  was  to  find  a  waterway  across  the  con- 
tinent, but  Jefferson  doubtless  had  more  in  view  than  such  a 
diplomatic  statement  would  imply.  Intercourse  with  natives, 
he  particularly  directed,  should  be  friendly  and  conciliatory. 

With  forty-two  men  and  three  boats  Lewis  and  Clark  left 
their  winter  quarters  on  May  14,  1804,  and  proceeded  up  the 
Missouri,  passing  the  village  of  St.  Charles,  with  a  French  Cana- 
dian population  of  450,  and  a  little  above  it  a  small  group  of 
American  farmers.  On  the  25th  they  passed  La  Charette,  the 
last  settlement,  and  were  then  fairly  under  way.  Two  rafts 
were  met  June  12th,  on  one  of  which  was  a  trapper  named 
Dorion  who  had  been  for  more  than  twenty  years  among  the 

'$2500  were  appropriated  by  Congress  for  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition. 


102  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Sioux.  They  engaged  him  to  go  with  the  party  and  this  in- 
creased the  number  to  forty-five  all  told.  There  were  nine 
young  men  from  Kentucky,  fourteen  American  soldiers  who 
had  volunteered,  a  French  interpreter,  a  French  hunter,  and 
a  negro  belonging  to  Clark.  All  but  the  negro  were  enlisted 
as  privates  and  drew  pay  from  the  Government.  Besides  these 
there  were  a  corporal  and  six  soldiers,  who  were  to  turn  back 
at  the  Mandan  towns,  and  nine  voyageurs.  One  boat  was 
fifty-five  feet  long,  drawing  three  feet  of  water,  with  a  square 
sail  and  twenty-two  oars,  and  was  armed  with  a  swivel  at  the 
bow.  There  was  a  deck  of  ten  feet  at  the  bow  and  stern, 
while  the  middle  was  covered  with  lockers  which  could  be 
raised  to  form  a  breastwork.  The  other  boats  were  open,  one 
having  six  and  the  other  seven  oars.  Two  horses  were  taken 
along  the  bank.  Had  they  abandoned  the  boat  idea  and  taken 
to  horses  they  might  have  gone  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia 
while  they  were  going  to  the  Mandan  towns,  but  they  did  not 
know  how  great  a  bend  the  Missouri  makes.  They  pushed 
steadily  up  the  river,  meeting  many  natives  and  having  friendly 
relations  with  them,  and  the  last  of  October  arrived  at  the 
Mandan  towns,  having  consumed  five  and  a  half  months  in 
making  the  ascent. 

As  soon  as  a  proper  place  was  found  they  felled  trees  and 
built  houses  for  the  winter,  calling  the  place  Fort  Mandan. 
The  Mandans  were  prefectly  familiar  v/ith  white  men,  as  has 
been  noted,  and  were  mainly  peaceable.  Lewis  found  here 
one  of  the  British  traders,  M'Cracken,  and  by  him  sent  a  note 
to  the  chief  of  his  home  post,  Chaboillez,  also  enclosing  a  copy 
of  his  British  passport.  This  apparently  was  to  avoid  friction 
with  the  fur  companies,  and  it  indicates  the  uncertain  condition 
of  the  claim  of  the  United  States  to  the  territory  he  intended 
to  traverse.  Lewis  evidently  concluded  a  month  later  that 
he  was  quite  within  American  territory,  for  he  forbade  La- 
roche,'  another  British  trader,  from  presenting  medals  and 
flags  to  the  natives.  Up  to  this  time  the  expedition  had  lost 
but  one  man.  Sergeant  Floyd,  who  died  near  where  Sioux 
City  now  stands,  and  he  was  the  only  man  who  was  lost  on 

'  This  was  La  Roque  of  the  N.-W.  Co. 


At  Fort  Mandan  i6 


the  whole  expedition.  Nor  were  any  seriously  injured  but 
Captain  Lewis,  who  was  accidentally  shot  in  the  thigh  by  one 
of  his  men  who  had  poor  eyesight  and  took  him  for  an  elk.  '? 
This  occurred  on  the  return  not  far  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Musselshell,  and  Lewis  was  well  before  they  reached  St.  Louis. 
The  freedom  from  needless  accident  is  strong  proof  of  the 
judgment  which  Lewis  and  Clark  used  in  the  management 
of  the  party,  for  disasters  are  usually  the  result  of  wrong 
decisions. 

The  winter  at  Fort  Mandan  passed  pleasantly.  Corn  and 
other  supplies  were  bought  from  the  natives,  and  there  was 
plenty  of  game.  About  the  middle  of  December,  a  trapper 
named  Haney  arrived  from  Montagne  a  la  Basse  with  a  note 
from  Chaboillez,  in  reply  to  the  one  sent  by  Lewis  to  him. 
He  offered  to  render  any  service  in  his  power.  Later  the 
trader  Laroche  came  again,  desiring  to  go  with  the  expedition, 
but  Lewis  declined  his  proposition.  Laroche  had  previously 
planned  a  journey  in  that  direction  which  he  had  not  carried 
out.  They  had  other  visitors,  among  them  McKenzie,  one  of 
the  principal  North-west  men.  The  intercourse  with  the  people 
of  the  North-west  Company  was  entirely  amicable,  and  there 
was  no  friction  except  for  a  brief  time,  when  they  tried  to 
prevent  the  interpreter  from  continuing  in  Lewis  and  Clark's 
service,  and  took  steps  to  prejudice  the  natives.  This  was 
not  sanctioned,  however,  by  Chaboillez  or  McKenzie.  ? 

On  Sunday  the  7th  of  April,  1805,  ^  being  ready,  the 
party  again  took  up  its  line  of  travel  up  the  river.  It  now 
numbered  thirty-two,  the  others  having  been  sent  back.  The 
interpreters  were  Drewyer  (Drouillard)  and  Chaboneau,  both 
Frenchmen.  Chaboneau  took  with  him  one  of  his  three 
Amerind  wives,  one  who  had  a  small  child.  This  woman 
Lewis  and  Clark  hoped  to  utilise  as  an  interpreter  among  the 
Snake  tribe,  to  whom  she  belonged,  having  been  taken  captive 
by  another  tribe  and  finally  sold  to  Chaboneau.  Her  name 
was  Sacajawea,  and  she  was  of  great  assistance,  notwithstand- 
ing the  encumbrance  of  the  child.  After  eight  days  they 
passed  what  they  called  Chaboneau  Creek  and  Sunday  Island. 
Chaboneau  had  once  encamped  on  this  creek.     "Beyond  this 


•   1 64  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

no  white  men  had  ever  been  but  two  Frenchmen,"  says  the 
journal.  One  of  these,  Lapage,  was  with  them,  and  he  could 
not  tell  exactly  how  far  he  had  gone,  as  they  had  lost  their 
way.  But  Captain  Lewis  does  not  explain,  if  this  were  correct, 
how  the  Roche  Jaune  came  to  have  its  name  before  he  reached 
it,  a  name  which  could  have  been  applied  only  by  some  one 
who  understood  the  conditions  near  its  head.  Yet  farther  on 
he  states  that  this  river  "had  been  known  to  the  French  as 
the  Roche  Jaune,  or  as  we  have  called  it  the  Yellowstone." 
Proceeding  up  the  Missouri  they  came  to  the  "Musselshell," 
which  is  stated  to  have  been  so  called  by  the  Minitarees.  The 
name  then  seems  to  have  been  a  native  word  and  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  shells  of  mussels!  All  through  this  region 
they  saw  large  numbers  of  trees  which  had  been  cut  down  by 
beaver,  and  as  they  proceeded  the  beaver  were  thick  every- 
where. Buffalo  were  plentiful,  and  there  was  no  dearth  of 
fresh  meat  of  all  kinds.  Sometimes  they  had  to  take  sticks  to 
drive  the  buffalo  out  of  the  way.  There  was  one  kind  of  game 
that  was  troublesome — the  huge  bears,  both  white  (grizzly) 
and  brown.  If  it  be  remembered  that  the  guns  of  the  party 
were  muzzle-loaders,  that  the  ammunition  was  loose  powder 
and  ball,  that  the  firing  apparatus  was  the  old  flint-lock,  with 
priming-pan,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  was  no  small  hazard  to  face 
these  ferocious  bears.  On  one  occasion  six  of  the  men,  all 
good  hunters,  at  the  same  moment  attacked  one  of  the  huge 
brown  bears,  and  though  the  bullets  all  took  effect  they  were 
obliged  to  fly  to  the  river,  where  two  escaped  in  a  canoe,  while 
the  others  hid  in  bushes  and  fired  repeatedly.  The  only  effect 
of  this  was  to  enrage  the  animal  still  more  till  the  four  hunters 
were  glad  to  leap  down  the  steep  bank  twenty  feet  into  the 
river,  whither  the  bear  pursued  them  and  was  within  a  few  feet 
of  one  when  a  good  shot  from  the  shore  hit  him  in  the  head 
and  at  last  killed  him.  Eight  balls  had  passed  in  different 
directions  through  him. 

On  May  26th,  from  the  summit  of  a  hill.  Captain  Lewis 
had  the  first  sight  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  seemed  to 
be  about  fifty  miles  away.  This  was  from  a  few  miles  below 
Judith  River,  and  the  mountains  seen  were  probably  the  Belt 


Canyon  ot  tne  Gates  of  tne  Mountains. 
From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  by  O.  D.  Wheeler. 


165 


i 


1 66  Breaking  the  Wilderness 


range.  They  were  not  the  first  to  see  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  French  and  the  Spaniards  had  been  to  them  farther 
south.  They  were  surrounded  by  immense  quantities  of  game 
from  here  on  to  the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  and  their  larder 
was  always  full  of  dainties.  The  river  was  150  to  250  yards 
wide,  and  they  had  no  difficulty  in  ascending.  There  were 
many  signs  of  the  aboriginal  owners  of  the  soil,  particularly 
old  lodges.  This  was  the  country  of  the  Minitarees,  who  had 
described  it  to  the  leaders.  It  seems  singular  that  they  did 
not  secure  two  or  three  of  these  Amerinds  as  guides.  Had 
they  done  so,  they  would  have  been  spared  a  good  deal  of 
labour  and  considerable  delay.  As  they  toiled  up  the  Missouri 
they  came  at  length  to  a  point  where  it  was  difficult  to  tell 
which  of  two  branches  to  take — that  is,  which  was  the  real 
Missouri, — but  they  finally  made  a  correct  decision,  and,  nam- 
ing the  northern  branch  Maria's  River,  continued  up  the  left  or 
southern  stream,  when  they  soon  arrived  at  the  Great  Falls. 
Had  Fidler  come  down  as  far  as  this  it  would  seem  that  he 
would  have  discovered  these  falls  and  would  have  described 
them,  hence  as  he  seems  not  to  have  mentioned  them  it  is 
probable  that  he  did  not  come  much  below  the  branches  of 
Maria's  River,  and  that  Lewis  and  Clark  were  now  in  the  un- 
trodden Wilderness,  untrodden  by  whites  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  Verendryes  or  some  other  Frenchman  of  that 
period. 

A  portage  eighteen  miles  long  was  imperative  to  surmount 
the  falls,  and  it  was  rendered  more  difficult  by  extremely  hot 
summer  weather.  A  large  cottonwood,  the  only  one  of  the 
proper  diameter  within  miles,  was  felled  for  the  purpose  of 
sawmg  from  its  trunk  wheels  with  which  to  make  a  carriage 
for  transporting  the  canoes.  Sacajawea  had  been  seriously  ill 
since  leaving  Maria's  River  and  it  was  fortunate  for  the  party 
that  she  recovered,  a  happy  event  largely  assisted  by  draughts 
from  some  sulphur  springs  found  here.  Here  too  she,  together 
with  Captain  Clark,  his  negro,  and  her  husband,  was  nearly 
lost  by  the  flood  from  a  cloudburst,  having  encamped  in  a 
deep,  dry  ravine.  Even  to  this  day  people  have  not  learned 
to  avoid  camping  in  the  Great  West,  in  the  bottoms  of  ravines 


t 


1 68  Breaking  the  Wilderness 


and  washes  which  in  a  few  minutes  may  become  filled  by- 
roaring  torrents. 

From  the  head  of  the  falls  they  took  a  fresh  start,  with  an 
additional  canoe  that  was  built  there.  Throughout  this  locality 
they  heard  the  strange  booming  sounds  which  are  a  feature  of 
the  region  and  have  not  been  explained.  It  was  not  long  be- 
fore they  were  confronted  by  three  forks  of  almost  equal 
dimensions,  and  they  were  puzzled  as  to  which  was  the  proper 
one  to  choose,  the  easiest  to  arrive  at  the  head  of  some  Pacific 
slope  river.  While  considering  the  matter  they  bestowed  the 
names  of  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Gallatin  upon  them  in  the 
order  named  from  west  to  east.  At  last  they  concluded  to 
ascend  the  Jefferson,  and  in  this  they  made  no  mistake.  They 
pushed  up  towards  its  source,  following  Beaverhead  branch. 
Horse  Prairie  Creek,  and  Trail  Creek,  and  on  August  12,  1805, 
Captain  Lewis,  who  had  gone  somewhat  in  advance,  came,  in 
Lemhi  Pass,  to  the  final  rill  of  the  Missouri  and  soon  stood 
beside  another  brook  that  swept  westward  to  swell  the  flood 
of  the  Columbia,  the  first  white  man  to  surmount  the  Backbone 
of  the  Continent  between  Peace  River,  far  to  the  north,  and 
New  Mexico,  far  to  the  south.  He  looked  out  upon  an  abso- 
lutely unknown  portion  of  the  Wilderness, — an  area  many 
times  that  of  Spain,  which  still  claimed  it.  Escalante  had 
been  from  Santa  Fe  to  Salt  Lake  valley,  but  west  and  north 
of  his  route,  to  the  head  of  Fraser  River,  no  white  man  had 
ever  penetrated. 

Still  advancing  before  the  main  body,  he  met  with  some 
stragglers  from  and  then  a  band  of  Shoshones,  some  of  whom 
he  had  been  anxious  to  meet  for  the  purpose  of  securing  in- 
formation, for  while  we  speak  of  the  country  as  unknown,  it 
was,  as  before  noted,  only  so  to  white  men.  The  natives 
knew  it  perfectly.  From  these  people  he  borrowed  horses  and 
prevailed  on  the  chief  to  return  to  the  main  party  with  him,  a 
proceeding  the  chief  was  doubtful  about,  for  never  before  hav- 
ing seen  white  men  (though  the  Lewis  and  Clark  party  were  so 
tanned  they  might  have  passed  for  natives)  he  was  fearful  of 
some  treachery.  On  meeting  the  party,  the  chief  discovered 
that  Sacajawea  was  his  sister,  who  in  childhood  had  been  stolen 


Traveller's  Rest 


169 


by  the  Minitarees.  The  whole  band  were  overjoyed  at  seeing 
this  woman  whom  they  had  never  expected  to  meet  again. 
Proceeding  to  the  camp  of  these  people,  a  halt  was  made  while 
Captain  Clark  explored  in  advance  down  this  Lemhi  branch 
and  Salmon  River  into  which  it  flowecj.  The  Shoshones  had 
told  them  that  the  country  below  in  this  direction  was  too 
rough  to  travel  far  in  any  manner,  and  Clark  found  out  the 
exactness  of  this  information  and  returned.     With  guides  from 


The  Dalles  of  the  Columbia. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

the  Shoshone  band  they  then  proceeded  down  the  Lemhi 
branch  and  over  to  North  Fork  which  they  mounted,  thence 
cutting  their  way  across  the  range  and  descending  to  Ross's 
Hole  on  the  head  of  Bitter  Root  River.  This  stream  they  fol- 
lowed down  to  the  mouth  of  Lolo  Creek,  where  they  made 
a  camp  called  Traveller's  Rest.  Once  more  starting  on  their 
westward  way,  they  climbed  the  Bitter  Root  range  again  along 
Lolo  Creek,  through  Lolo  Pass,  to  the  head  of  the  Clear- 
water middle  fork,  which  they  called  by  its  Amerind  name, 


§i7o  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Kooskooskie.  Passing  westerly  between  this  fork  and  the 
north  fork  of  the  Clearwater,  they  finally  reached  a  place  at  the 
mouth  of  the  north  fork  whence  the  natives  said  they  could 
descend  in  canoes,  therefore  they  stopped  here  from  September 
26  to  October  7,  1805,  to  build  some.  They  were  now  nearer 
sea  level  than  at  any  time  since  passing  Council  Bluffs,  for  the 
Wilderness  is  generally  above  two  thousand  feet. 

The  natives  were  kind  and  obliging,  and  though  provisions 
had  been  alarmingly  scarce  since  leaving  the  Missouri,  they 
managed  to  secure  enough  of  one  kind  or  another,  roots, 
dried  salmon,  horse  meat,  dogs,  and  fish,  to  keep  themselves 
alive.  Descending  in  their  canoes  the  Clearwater,  they  entered 
Snake  River;  or,  as  they  called  it,  Lewis  River,  a  junction 
marked  to-day  by  a  thriving  town  named  Lewiston  in  honour 
of  the  captain.  From  this  point  they  had  a  noble  river  all  the 
way  to  the  end,  broken  by  rapids,  some  of  which  were  so  fierce 
they  were  forced  to  make  portages.  As  one  sails  down 
on  the  bosom  of  the  Snake  to-day  and  looks  up  at  its  towering 
walls,  close  and  precipitous,  with  each  bend  a  hazy  mystery 
to  the  new  voyager,  he  sympathises  with  these  first  explorers 
who  followed  its  torrent  to  the  sea.  They  soon  entered  the 
Columbia,  sweeping  down  on  its  tremendous  reaches,  sighting 
magnificent  peaks,  and  finally  reaching  the  mouth  where  Robert 
Gray  had  cleaved  the  long  line  of  breakers,  thirteen  years 
before.  At  that  time,  too,  Broughton,  one  of  Vancouver's 
officers,  Gray  having  broken  the  way,  stemmed  the  current  of 
the  Columbia  for  about  eighty  miles,  to  Point  Vancouver,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Willamet.  It  was  on  November  7th  that 
they  came  in  sight  of  the  ocean  and  listened  to  the  music  of 
the  breakers,  that  had  deceived  so  many  excellent  navigators; 
a  sound  full  of  delight  to  these  men,  for  it  announced  the 
triumph  of  the  undertaking. 

Winter  quarters  were  established  on  the  south  side  at  a 
place  not  far  above  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  three  miles  up 
a  small  stream  called  the  Netul.  The  camp  was  thirty-five 
feet  above  high  tide,  two  hundred  yards  from  the  creek,  and 
seven  miles  east  of  the  sea.  Houses  were  built  in  a  tall  pine 
grove   and   the  village  was    named    Fort    Clatsop,    after   the 


The  Return 


171 


neighbouring  tribe.  For  some  time  they  had  been  subjected 
to  constant  rain,  for  the  coast  hereabouts  is  a  wet  one,  totally 
unlike  the  region  they  had  passed  through  on  the  Missouri, 
which  is  very  dry.  The  food  question  continued  to  be  the 
chief  one.  Their  diet  consisted  of  pounded  fish  varied  by 
wapatoo  roots,  and  some  elk-meat.  No  serious  illness  oc- 
curred. Every  man  was  buoyed  up  by  a  desire  to  make  the 
expedition  a  success,  and  with  every  undertaking  of  this  kind 


Snake  River  below  Lewiston.     On  Lewis  and  Clark's  Trail. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


success  ultimately  depends  on  the  spirit  of  the  men.     The 
winter  wore  away  and  they  managed  to  evade  starvation. 

One  writer  refers  to  the  story  that  a  Boston  brig  put 
in  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  in  November  or  December  of  this 
year,  but  it  seems  that  this  story  has  some  error  in  it,  for  if 
the  brig  had  come  its  captain  would  have  been  after  furs,  and 
the  natives  would  have  known  of  the  visit,  and  surely  would 
have  mentioned  it  to  the  explorers.  As  they  did  not,  it  seems 
that  there  must  be  an  error  in  date  and  that  the  visit  of  the 


g  172  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

brig  was  the  following  year,  when  her  captain  obtained  papers 
from  the  natives  telling  of  Lewis  and  Clark's  stay. 

On  the  23d  of  March,  1806,  they  turned  their  backs  on  Fort 
Clatsop  and  the  Western  Ocean  and  retraced  their  course  up 
the  Columbia.  Like  Cabeza'de  Vaca  they  had  acquired  fame 
as  healers  and  their  services  were  in  demand  as  medicine-men, 
a  fortunate  circumstance,  for  they  now  had  hardly  anything  to 
trade.  Even  their  clothes  were  made  of  skins.  By  means  of 
eye-water  and  other  simple  remedies  they  were  able  to  pur- 
chase an  occasional  horse,  a  few  dogs,  and  roots  and  fish.  The 
generosity  of  one  chief  was  greater  than  any  white  man  would 
have  been  likely  to  offer,  for  he  told  them  to  help  themselves 
to  his  horses  without  remuneration.  At  length  they  sur- 
mounted the  Lolo  Pass  again  and  dropped  down  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Bitter  Root  range  to  Traveller's  Rest.  Here  Lewis 
turned  up  one  of  the  eastern  forks  of  Clark  River  and  crossed 
to  the  Missouri  by  a  more  direct  route,  while  Clark  followed 
the  Bitter  Root  again,  and  at  its  head  crossed  to  the  stream 
they  had  followed  out,  and  descended  to  where  the  canoes  had 
been  left.  With  these,  a  party  under  Ordway  was  sent  down 
the  river,  and  Clark  with  the  rest  went  from  the  three  forks  to 
the  head  of  the  Yellowstone.  Building  canoes  at  a  point  a 
day  or  two  down  this  river,  they  descended  it  to  the  Missouri, 
waiting  for  Lewis  to  come  to  them,  a  little  below  the  mouth. 

Meanwhile  the  latter  had  gone  up  Maria's  River  and  in  that 
locality  occurred  the  only  fatal  encounter  with  natives  of  the 
whole  journey.  With  several  men  he  was  on  a  side  trip  when 
they  met  a  small  party  of  Blackfeet.  All  camped  together. 
Before  the  whites  were  awake  in  the  early  morning,  the 
Amerinds  attempted  to  run  off  with  the  guns.  This  move 
was  detected  by  the  guard,  who  gave  the  alarm  and  pursued 
the  one  who  had  his  gun.  In  the  scuffle  for  the  possession  of 
this,  Reuben  Fields  stabbed  the  Blackfoot  through  the  heart 
and  the  man  instantly  dropped  dead."  With  a  pistol  Lewis, 
who  had  been  at  once  awakened,  pursued  others  who  had  his 
gun,  but  being  unable  to  overtake  them,  he  fired,  striking  one 
in  the  abdomen.  Whether  this  man  died  or  not  is  unknown, 
but  he  lived  long  enough  to  return  the  shot,  the  ball  passing 


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Route  of  Lewis  and  Clark  from  Maria's  River  to  Traveller's  Rest  and  Return. 

From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  by  O.  D.  Wheeler. 


173 


i  1 74  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

close  to  Lewis's  head.  The  Blackfeet  had  also  driven  off  the 
horses,  but  all  but  one  were  recovered,  while  for  that  one 
the  enemy  left  four  of  their  own.  Thus  the  white  men  for  the 
moment  were  victorious.  It  was  an  unfortunate  episode,  and 
evidently  an  unavoidable  one.  It  served  to  enrage  the  Black- 
feet,  and  turn  them  violently  against  the  whites.  It  was  not 
far  from  here  that  Cruzatte  blindly  mistook  Lewis  for  the  elk 
and  put  a  bullet  into  his  thigh. 

They  passed  the  camp  of  two  white  trappers,  Dickson  (or 
Dixon)  and  Hancock,  the  first  white  men  they  had  seen  since 
leaving  Fort  Mandan.  These  men  had  come  out  from  Illinois 
to  trap  and  trade,  the  forerunners  of  a  host  of  others  eager  to 
make  nature  yield  them  a  quick  fortune.  They  had  seen  Clark 
the  day  before  and  this  news  was  welcome  to  Lewis,  for  Ord- 
way,  with  the  boats,  having  also  come  safely  down,  the  party 
was  soon  reunited.  At  Mandan  they  found  their  old  quarters 
had  been  accidentally  burned.  White  traders  were  frequently 
met  below  this,  for  the  conditions  had  materially  changed  in 
the  more  than  two  years  the  explorers  had  been  gone.  Among 
these  men  was  Auguste  Choteau,  a  noted  man  in  that  region; 
and  McClellan,  a  former  army  officer,  who  was  planning  a 
journey  to  Santa  Fe  with  some  Pawnee  and  Otoe  chiefs,  to 
exchange  merchandise  for  the  barrels  of  gold  and  silver  the 
Spaniards  were  thought  to  possess.  The  gold  quest  of  the 
Conquistadores  was  to  be  renewed,  though  now  it  was 
the  Spaniards  who  occupied  the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola.  This 
trade,  as  we  shall  see,  developed  to  considerable  proportions. 

Lewis  and  Clark  reached  St.  Louis  on  September  23,  1806, 
and  were  in  Washington  the  middle  of  February,  1807.  Lewis 
was  made  governor  of  Louisiana,  Clark  was  raised  to  general 
of  militia  of  the  same  district  as  well  as  agent  for  the  numerous 
tribes  within  its  area.  All  were  given  grants  of  320  acres  of 
land  and  double  pay.  Lewis  died  September,  1809,  ^^  ^ 
journey  from  St.  Louis  to  Washington.  Thus  he  did  not  live 
to  see  even  the  beginning  of  the  wonderful  development  that 
occurred  in  the  Wilderness  where  he  had  so  masterfully  driven 
the  entering  wedge. 


CHAPTER    X 

The  Metropolis  of  the  Far  Wilderness — James  Pursley  Arrives — Pike  up  the 
Mississippi  and  Across  the  Plains — A  Spanish  War  Party — A  Breastwork  to 
Mark  the  Site  of  Pueblo— Polar  Weather  and  No  Clothing— Pike  Sees  the 
Grand  Peak — San  Luis  Valley — The  Americans  Captured  by  Diplomacy — 
Pursley  Finds  Gold — Malgares,  the  Gentleman — The  Pike  Party  Sent  Home. 

THE  settlements  on  the  Rio  Grande  had  now  been  continu- 
ously occupied  by  the  Spaniards  for  more  than  a  century. 
To  some  extent  the  surrounding  country  had  been  explored 
in  every  direction,  and  a  desultory  trade  was  carried  on  with 
the  various  Amerind  tribes,  particularly  with  those  of  the 
plains  and  the  northern  region,  from  all  of  whom  they  obtained 
furs  in  exchange  for  articles  of  European  make,  exactly  as  the 
British  were  doing  in  the  Far  North,  and  the  Americans  in  the 
East.  They  were  therefore  known  far  and  wide,  even  to  tribes 
which  did  not  directly  deal  with  them.  Santa  Fe  at  this  period, 
1805,  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  metropolis  of  the  vaster 
Wilderness.  It  had  a  population  of  about  4500,  with  two 
churches,  and  covered  about  a  mile  of  ground  in  length,  a 
distance  which  was  longitudinally  divided  by  three  streets. 
Agriculture  was  practised  by  means  of  irrigation,  a  system 
which  natives  had  operated  ages  before.  By  it,  an  abundance 
of  maize,  melons,  beans,  peppers,  squashes,  peaches,  grapes, 
etc.,  were  produced,  and  as  there  were  also  plenty  of  sheep 
and  cattle,  life  on  the  Rio  Grande  in  New  Mexico  was  by  no 
means  severe,  indeed  it  had  a  kind  of  dole e  far  nieiite  quality 
that  clings  round  it  still.  The  routes  from  the  eastward  to 
reach  this  elysium  were  not  unknown,  and  would  more  often 
have  been  travelled  had  it  not  been  for  the  restrictions  of  the 
Spanish  Government. 

175 


•  176  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

One  route  across  Texas  passed  through  the  town  of  San 
Antonio,  with  a  population  of  about  two  thousand,  and  in 
Texas  there  were  at  that  time  besides  the  people  of  San  An- 
tonio about  five  thousand  others,  a  mixture  of  Spanish  Creoles, 
some  French,  some  Americans,  and  a  few  civilised  natives. 
Another  road  was  by  way  of  Red  River,  and  still  another,  the 
least  known,  by  way  of  the  Arkansas.  At  Lemhi  Pass,  Lewis 
and  Clark  had  heard  from  a  Ute  of  these  towus  about  twenty 
days'  journey  to  the  south,  and  at  Council  Bluffs  others  had 
stated  that  Santa  Fe  was  twenty-five  days'  journey  from  there. 
One  white  man,  McClellan,  was  planning  a  tour  to  Santa  Fe 
about  the  time  of  Lewis  and  Clark's  return,  and  it  is  said  that 
certain  Mallet  brothers  with  six  others,  before  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  went  up  from  St.  Louis  and  struck  from 
the  Missouri  to  the  Rio  Grande  settlements.  One  Baptiste 
LaLande,  in  the  employ  of  Morrison,  an  American  merchant, 
had  gone  there  in  1804  with  goods  to  trade,  but  had  never 
returned,  for  he  found  the  country  attractive  and  hflnself  out 
of  reach  of  his  employer.  All  merchandise  for  the  Rio  Grande 
settlements  was  brought  by  a  long,  difficult  road  from  Mexico, 
and  prices  were  enormous  by  the  time  the  goods  arrived  at 
Santa  Fe.  The  government  and  the  governor  too  had  to 
have  their  bonus.  The  Americans  knew  of  these  conditions, 
and  hence  early  began  to  speculate  on  the  possibility  of  trans- 
porting merchandise  overland  from  St.  Louis  to  compete.  As 
the  governor  and  the  government  were  everything  in  that 
region,  and  permission  to  trade,  to  trap,  or  merely  to  enter  or 
leave  the  land  had  to  be  first  obtained  from  the  autocratic 
head,  going  to  Santa  Fe  to  trade  and  entering  or  approaching 
the  Spanish  domain  in  any  way  were  not  trifling  matters; 
more  particularly  as  the  point  at  which  American  jurisdiction 
ended  and  that  of  Spain  began  was  as  uncertain  as  the  point 
where  the  north  wind  ceased  to  blow.  Few  Americans  there- 
fore had  attempted  it.  The  first  to  make  the  entry  did  so 
almost  involuntarily.  He  was  a  man  from  Kentucky,  James 
Pursley,  who  was  trapping  in  the  region  west  of  St.  Louis  in 
1802— before  the  purchase  of  l^ouisiana  by  the  United  States. 

Like  so  many  of  the  Americans  of  that  time  brought  up  to 


James  Pursley 


177 


the  frontier  life,  he  was  perfectly  familiar  with  every  danger, 
and  with  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  Amerind  character;  and 
he  was  of  dauntless  courage  and  limitless  perseverance. 
Nothing  ever  baulked  this  type  of  man,  of  whom  Daniel 
Boone  was  a  fine  specimen.  Battered  and  thrust  down  by 
fortune  till  it  would  seem  impossible  for  anything  human  to 
rise  above  the  circumstances,  they  mastered  them  as  if  merely 
remounting  a  mustang  from  which  they  had  momentarily  been 
unseated.  So  it  was  that  Pursley  ploughed  his  way  to  Santa 
F6  with  no  original  intention  of  going  there.     Some  of  the 


New  Mexican  Cart. 

Drawing  by  Julian  Scott. 
From  Bulletin  of  the  Eleventh  Census. 


Kansa  tribe  having  stolen  the  horses  of  his  party,  Pursley 
happened  to  see  his  own  being  ridden  by  one  of  that  tribe  to 
water.  Without  a  moment's  hesitation,  Pursley  pursued  him, 
and  discovering  that  he  could  not  get  the  horse,  ripped  open 
the  animal's  bowels  with  his  hunting  knife.  The  Kansa  there- 
upon tried  to  shoot  him,  but  the  gun  missed  fire,  and  Pursley, 
with  the  knife,  chased  the  man  into  the  camp,  where  he  was 
unable  to  get  him  because  he  hid  in  a  tent  surrounded  by 
women  and  children.  Other  white  men  were  there  at  the  mo- 
ment and  saw  the  whole  thing.  The  chiefs  of  the  tribe  were 
so  much  astonished  and  delighted  at  Pursley's  courage  that 
they  caused  all  the  horses  to  be  returned  to  him. 

He  and  his  partners  then  went  back  to  their  cache  intend- 
ing to  take  their  goods  to  St.  Louis,  but  a  second  time  their 


i?^  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

horses  were  stolen.  Thereupon  they  built  a  canoe  and  sailed 
down  the  Osage,  but  when  near  its  mouth  they  were  capsized, 
and  with  the  exception  of  their  arms  and  ammunition,  lost 
everything  they  possessed.  Just  at  this  disheartening  moment 
.  along  came  a  barge  bound  for  the  upper  Missouri.  Pursley 
joined  this  company,  and  arriving  in  the  Mandan  country,  he 
was  sent  on  an  expedition  to  trade  with  some  Paducas  and 
Kiowas.  They  were  all  driven  by  Sioux  into  the  mountains 
at  the  head  of  the  Platte.  The  natives  with  whom  they  were, 
some  two  thousand  in  number,  desired  to  trade  with  the 
Spaniards,  but  not  knowing  how  they  might  be  received,  they 
finally  sent  Pursley  with  his  white  men,  and  two  of  their  own 
kind,  to  Santa  Fe  to  interview  Governor  Allencaster.  The 
latter  not  objecting  to  their  trading,  the  two  Amerinds  returned 
with  that  information  to  their  waiting  brethren,  while  Pursley 
and  his  men,  having  been  rather  dubious  about  ever  arriving 
again  among  whites,  were  quite  content  to  remain  in  the 
Spanish  towns.  They  arrived  in  June,  1805,  and  Pursley  took 
up  the  practice  of  his  trade  of  carpenter,  earning  considerable 
money  by  it.  He  had  been  in  the  habit  of  making  his  own 
gunpowder  in  Kentucky,  and  tried  doing  it  here,  but  on  his 
operations  being  discovered  he  came  near  being  hung.  He 
was  forbidden  to  write,  but  was  told  he  could  have  a  passport 
whenever  he  wanted  it,  though  they  exacted  security  that  he 
would  not  leave  without  permission. 

Another  man,  whose  name  was  soon  to  be  written  for  all 
time  upon  the  face  of  this  particular  region,  was  at  this  mo- 
ment preparing  for  the  first  of  two  important  undertakings. 
.  .  The  uncertainty  of  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  and  of 
the  northern  boundary  of  Louisiana  impelled  the  astute  Jeffer- 
son to  arrange  for  other  explorations  in  that  quarter  before 
the  return  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  For  this  work  a  young,  brave, 
and  capable  officer.  Lieutenant  Zebulon  Montgomery  Pike, 
was  chosen.'  He  proceeded  to  St.  Louis,  and  in  August, 
1805,  with  a  keel  boat  seventy  feet  long,  and  a  crew  of  one 
sergeant,  two  corporals,  and  seventeen  privates,   provisioned 

^  Pike  was  later  captain,  then  major,  then  general.     He  was  killed  at  York, 
Upper  Ca,nada,  in  the  War  of  1812.     He  was  about  the  age  of  Meriwether  Lewis. 


Zebulon  Pike 


179 


for  four  months,  started  to  explore  the  Father  of  Waters  to 
its  uppermost  rill.  The  Amerinds  of  this  region  had  a  great 
dread  of  the  Americans,  considering  them  quarrelsome  and 
warlike,  hence  they  would  often  go  out  of  the  way  to  avoid  a 
meeting.  Yet  Pike  was 
generally  well  received 
and  one  influential  chief 
gave  him  a  special  peace 
pipe  to  show  to  the 
Sioux  above  as  a  sort 
of  passport.  It  was  a 
request  to  have  him 
treated  with  friendship 
and  respect.  At  one  of 
the  villages  this  friend- 
ship and  respect  were 
indicated  by  a  salute 
from  the  guns  of  a  party 
on  shore.  The  guns 
were  loaded  with  ball 
and,  inasmuch  as  their 
owners  were  drunk, 
they  tried  to  see  how 
near  the  boat  they  could 
strike  without  actually 
hitting  it.  Notwith- 
standing their  undesir- 
able condition,  Pike 
presented  them  later 
with  several  gallons  of 
rum,  an  action  which 
seems  hardly  pardon- 
able in  a  government  officer,  yet  this  issuing  to  the  natives  of 
intoxicants  was  common  among  all  officers,  traders,  and  all 
managers  of  fur  companies.  They  knew  its  diabolical  effect, 
as  well  as  its  debasing  and  generally  demoralising  quality,  yet 
they  all  did  it.  Of  course  the  ordinary  fur  trader  desired  to 
intoxicate  the  natives  in  order  to  overreach  them,  and  traded 


A  Rocky  Mountain  Torrent. 

Photograph  by  J.  K.  Hillers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


•    i8o  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

whiskey,  or  rather  alcohol  and  water,  for  their  goods  because 
in  this  way  he  made  a  profit  of  several  hundred  per  cent.  The 
great  fur  companies  each  used  it  in  their  trade  because  the 
others  did ;  but  with  the  officers  of  the  United  States  Army 
there  was  no  excuse  for  employing  this  means  of  gaining  the 
Amerind  favour. 

The  expedition  mounted  the  river  without  any  serious 
drawback,  and  the  boats,  increased  to  four  all  told,  were 
Pike's  pride,  for  he  exclaims  on  one  occasion  :  "Our  four  boats 
under  full  sail,  their  flags  streaming  before  the  wind,  were 
altogether  a  prospect  so  variegated  and  romantic  that  a  man 
may  scarce  expect  to  enjoy  such  a  one  but  twice  or  thrice  in 
the  course  of  his  life."  They  sailed  across  Lake  Pepin  with 
violins  playing,  and  other  music,  and  altogether  seemed  to 
enjoy  their  voyage.  In  this  region  Jonathan  Carver  was  sup- 
posed to  have  travelled  in  1766-68,  and  since  that  time  the  fur 
traders  from  the  north  and  north-east  had  operated  all  over  it. 
When  Lewis  and  Clark  were  at  their  Fort  Mandan,  a  man 
named  Haney  visited  the  place,  and  they  obtained  from  him 
"much  geographical  information  with  regard  to  the  country 
between  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  and  the  various  tribes  of 
Sioux  who  inhabit  it."  Pike  found  there  a  number  of  agents 
and  trappers  belonging  to  the  British  fur  companies  and  pro- 
tested against  their  occupying  the  country.  Everything  was 
amicable  between  them,  and  after  a  winter  spent  in  the  region 
Pike  returned,  by  the  river,  to  St.  Louis,  the  last  of  April, 
1806,  about  the  time  that  Lewis  and  Clark  were  toiling  up  the 
Columbia  on  their  return. 

A  little  more  than  two  months  before  Lewis  and  Clark 
arrived  at  St.  Louis,  Pike  was  again  on  the  march,  this  time 
with  his  steps  directed  toward  the  mighty  peak  which  now 
bears  his  name,  and  which  afterwards  evolved  itself  into  the 
famous  motto  of  the  caravans,  "Pike's  peak  or  bust."  It 
was  July  15,  1806,  when  he  made  his  start  on  this  traverse  of 
the  plains  and  mountains,  apparently  with  no  information 
as  to  the  route,  with  no  guides,  and  with  no  proper  equip- 
ment. Of  course  he  had  no  intention  of  blundering  around 
the  high  mountains  in  dead  of  winter,  but  it  was  an  impos- 


The  Spanish  Sentinel 


ibi 


sibility  for  any  party  to  accomplish  the  journey  out  to  the 
head  of  Red  River  and  back  before  cold  weather  should  set 
in,  therefore,  with  all  the  uncertainty,  they  should  have  been 
provided  with  winter  clothing,  but  they  had  nothing  of  the 
kind.  I  should  say  they  had  hardly  enough  of  anything  for 
even  a  summer  campaign.  However,  where  ignorance  is  bliss, 
preliminary  suffering  is  avoided.  He  was  directed  to  escort  a 
number  of  rescued  Amerind  captives  back  to  their  tribe,  and 
with  these  he  left  St.  Louis.  The  whole  party  consisted  of 
one  lieutenant,  one  surgeon,  one  sergeant,  two  corporals,  six- 
teen privates,  one  interpreter,  and  fifty-one  natives  of  all  ages. 
Up  the  Missouri,  which  somebody  has  styled  the  "Mother  of 
Floods,"  '  in  two  boats,  they  worked  their  way  for  six  weeks 
to  the  Osage  River.  Here  the  boats  were  sold  for  a  hundred 
dollars  and  horses  were  purchased  with  which  to  continue. 

The  Spaniards  on  this  expedition  kept  a  jealous  eye,  as 
indeed  they  did  on  any  party  from  the  United  States  into  the 
region  beyond  the  Missouri.'  A  strong  force  in  fact  had  been 
sent  to  intercept  Pike.  This  had  gone  as  far  as  the  Sabine, 
and  then  northerly  to  the  Republican  fork,  the  very  place 
where  Pike  soon  after  arrived  and  found  the  trail  of  his  pro- 
spective captors.  The  relations  of  the  United  States  and 
Spain  were  much  strained  owing  to  the  Louisiana  transaction. 
The  Spaniards  were  endeavouring  to  limit  Louisiana  as  much 
as  possible,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  claims  of  the  United 
States  were  as  broad  as  the  most  liberal  conception  of  the  ex- 
tent of  Louisiana  could  formulate,  and  as  Louisiana  never  had 
possessed  any  real  demarkation  it  is  easy  to  see  how  far  apart 
the  two  countries  on  this  subject  were.  In  the  region  farther 
down  the  river,  in  the  Texas  and  Orleans  districts,  the  situa- 
tion was  precarious.  While  Pike  was  fitting  out,  information 
of  his  intentions  was  forwarded  by  Spanish  agents  to  their 
Government.  The  large  armed  force  whose  trail  Pike  had  now 
fallen  upon  was  the  result.     According  to  Pike,  who  afterwards 

'  Charles  Joseph  Latrobe,  a  companion  of  Washington  Irving  on  the  plains. 
He  wrote  7^/?^?  Rainbler  in  North  America. 

2  About  this  time  the  Marquis  Casa  Calvo  had  given  an  American,  Dunbar, 
permission  to  explore  the  Red  River  and  Wichita  country. 


1 82  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

learned  all  about  it  from  its  commander,  Malgares,  it  had  three 
objects:  first,  to  descend  Red  River,  and  if  Pike  was  met  to 
turn  him  back ;  second,  to  explore  the  country  to  the  Missouri ; 
third,  to  visit  a  number  of  the  native  tribes,  make  them  pre- 
sents, and  renew  the  chain  of  ancient  friendship  between  "his 
most  catholic  majesty  and  the  red  people."  Furthermore, 
the  commanding  officer  had  orders  to  compel  all  parties  in  this 
country  to  retire  to  the  acknowledged  territory  of  the  United 
States,  or  to  make  prisoners  of  them  and  take  them  to  New 
Mexico.  So  the  position  of  Spain  with  regard  to  the  region 
lying  along  the  Missouri  River  was  entirely  plain. 

It  was  fortunate  that  they  did  not  meet  with  Pike  till  he 
was  worn  out  by  exposure  and  famine,  for  he  certainly  would 
have  given  battle.  But  Malgares,  who  was  a  man  of  "large 
fortune,  generous,  well  educated,  with  a  high  sense  of  honour,'* 
was  later  under  different  circumstances  very  kind  to  Pike,  and 
'to  the  surgeon,  Dr.  Robinson,  so  that  both  became  much 
attached  to  him. 

On  his  march  he  gathered  in  every  American  trader  and 
trapper  he  found  and  some  of  these  he  sent  to  Nachitoches, 
a  Spanish  post  in  Texas,  where  Pike  afterwards  found  them 
existing  in  abject  poverty.  The  army  was  made  up  of  one 
hundred  dragoons  from  the  province  of  Biscay,  who  had  fitted 
out  on  reaching  Santa  Fe,  and  were  there  joined  by  five  hun- 
dred mounted  militia,  equipped  for  six  months.  Each  man 
led  two  horses  and  a  mule,  making  in  all  over  two  thousand 
head  of  stock.  Down  Red  River  they  had  gone  some  233 
miles,  before  turning  to  the  north-east  to  reach  the  Arkansas, 
where  Malgares  left  240  of  his  men  with  the  worn-out  stock, 
while  with  the  rest  he  kept  on  to  the  village  of  the  Pawnee 
Republic,  on  the  Republican  fork  of  the  Kansas  River,  where 
he  held  councils  with  various  tribes  of  Pawnees.  It  was  about 
here  that  the  unfortunate  Villazur  party  met  its  sad  fate  in 
1720,  and  the  recollection  of  that  affair  now  produced  in  the 
Spanish  soldiers  a  desire  rather  to  revenge  the  treachery 
against  Villazur  by  destroying  the  Pawnees,  than  to  promote 
the  repairing  of  the  slender  links  of  the  ancient  amity  chain. 
In  addition  to  this  they  seem  to  have  grown  discontented. 


On  the  Trail  of  Malgares 


183 


These  considerations  and  the  lame  condition  of  the  stock  pre- 
vented Malgares  from  advancing  farther  or  from  waiting  to 
intercept  Pike,  and  he  was  obliged  to  take  the  back  track;  a 
lucky  thing  for  the  small  American  party.  By  October  he 
was  in  Santa  Fe,  where  his  militia  disbanded,  but  he  remained 
there  with  the  regular  troops.      He  was  well  out  of  Pike's  way, 


A  Glade  for  the  Weary.     Altitude  8000  Feet. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


as  it  was  the  end  of  September  before  the  American  party 
came  upon  the  trail  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  Republican  fork. 

This  was  probably  the  region  that  Coronado  reached  in  his 
eastward  march  two  and  a  half  centuries  earlier — and  it  was 
little  different  from  what  it  was  at  that  time. 

Pike  immediately  demanded  from  the  Pawnees  the  Spanish 
flag  which  Malgares  had  given  them  in  token  of  their  alle- 
giance to  the  Spanish  king,  and  he  presented  them  instead  with 
a  flag  of  the  United  States;  but  he  finally  returned  the  Span- 
ish flag  on  condition  that  it  should  not  be  displayed  during  his 


•  i84  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

stay.  The  Pawnee  chief  on  his  part  urged  Pike  to  turn  back, 
and  admitted  that  he  had  agreed  with  the  Spaniards  to  stop 
him,  but  the  American  officer,  whatever  faults  he  may  have 
had,  was  not  of  a  temper  to  be  easily  stopped,  and  probably 
the  Pawnee  chief  observed  this,  for  he  made  no  attempt  to 
prevent  the  expedition  from  proceeding.  He  told  a  good  deal 
about  the  Spanish  visit  which  Pike  recorded,  but  these  papers 
and  all  others  were  taken  from  him  later.  Here  they  heard 
the  pleasant  news  of  the  safe  return  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  and 
doubtless  Pike  looked  forward  to  an  equally  brilliant  accom- 
plishment. But  he  had  to  deal  with  an  additional  factor  or 
obstacle,  the  Spaniards,  and  consequently,  as  he  persisted  in 
putting  his  head  in  the  lion's  mouth,  it  closed  upon  him. 
Lewis  and  Clark  had  certain  other  advantages  in  threading  the 
unknown  Wilderness;  the  natives  there  had  not  yet  been  de- 
ceived, swindled,  and  unjustly  shot,  and  the  British  had  no 
force  in  that  quarter  to  interrupt  their  progress  even  if  such  a 
desire  had  been  present  in  the  British  mind  :  the  Spaniards 
were  even  more  handicapped.  Pike,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
on  a  sort  of  highway,  where  the  Spaniards  had  already  been 
searching  for  him.  After  delivering  his  wards  at  their  home 
camp,  he  kept  on  his  westward  way,  following  the  trail  of 
Malgares,  where  it  was  not  obliterated  by  the  bison  herds, 
reaching  the  Arkansas,  and  then  pursuing  a  course  up  that 
stream.  On  October  28th,  Lieutenant  Wilkinson  was  sent 
back  with  letters.  His  party  descended  the  Arkansas  with 
two  boats,  one  a  skin  canoe,  in  which  he  embarked  with  three 
soldiers  and  an  Osage,  and  a  wooden  canoe  with  the  baggage, 
manned  by  another  soldier  and  an  Osage,  while  one  more 
soldier  walked  along  the  shore. 

Pike's  plan  was  to  follow  up  the  Arkansas  as  far  as  the 
mountains  or  as  the  Comanches,  and  then  go  south  to  Red 
River,  returning  home  by  this  stream.'  Had  he  not  deviated 
from  this  plan  it  is  likely  that  his  expedition  would  have  been 
able  to  return  without  serious  suffering,  but  he  departed  from 

^  Coues  suggests  that  Pike  was  really  bound  for  Santa  Fe  and  fully  intended  to 
allow  himself  to  be  captured.  It  is  possible  that  he  had  some  secret  compact  with 
General  Wilkinson  and  Aaron  Burr. 


At  the  Grand  Fork  185 

it  when  he  reached  the  mountains,  there  turning  north  to  find 
Red  River,  instead  of  south  as  he  had  intended.  On  Novem- 
ber 15th,  as  they  were  pushing  along  on  the  wide  plain,  he 
thought  he  detected  the  suggestion  of  the  great  range,  and 
half  an  hour  later  the  splendid  line  of  peaks  came  in  full  view. 
Then  "the  Mexican  mountains  were  cheered  three  times,"  but 
had  they  realised  the  amount  of  suffering  and  misery  they  were 
to  endure  amidst  those  enticing  forms,  these  cheers  instead 
would  have  been  tears,  bitter  tears.  They  were  now  filled 
with  the  idea  of  arriving  the  next  day  at  the  foot  of  the  long 
line  of  billowy  enchantment,  but  the  following  night  they 
seemed  no  nearer  than  before.  They  here,  however,  had 
plenty  to  eat,  and  feasted  on  marrow  bones,  for  enormous 
herds  of  buffalo  encompassed  them.  They  had  the  wisdom 
to  dry  a  large  supply  of  the  meat  to  carry  along;  but  it  ought 
to  have  been  far  larger.  On  the  22d  a  war  party  of  Grand 
Pawnees  was  encountered,  and  Pike  was  fearful  of  a  clash, 
which  indeed  was  always  imminent  in  the  region  they  had  now 
entered,  extending  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  mountains 
and  termed  later  the  "War  Road,"  or  "Hostile  Ground," 
because  it  seemed  to  be  a  sort  of  lawless  area,  where  every 
tribe  felt  at  liberty  to  attack  anything  that  came  in  its  way. 
There  were  sixty  of  the  Pawnees  and  only  sixteen  of  the 
Americans,  so  that  the  battle  would  have  been  uneven,  half 
of  the  Pawnees  being  armed  with  guns.  But  they  had  a  pow- 
wow, and  the  Amerinds  asked  for  corn,  ammunition,  blankets, 
etc.  Pike  gave  them  presents  and  invited  them  to  smoke  and 
eat,— an  invitation  which  was  accepted,  and  the  relations  were 
not  unpleasant  till  the  Americans  began  to  pack  up,  when  the 
Pawnees  took  to  stealing  what  they  could.  Thereupon  Pike 
announced  to  them  that  he  would  kill  the  next  one  who 
touched  the  baggage,  which  had  the  proper  effect,  and  each 
party  continued  on  its  own  way. 

On  the  24th  of  November  they  arrived  at  the  "Grand 
Fork" — that  is,  at  about  the  place  where  Pueblo,  Colorado, 
now  stands.  Here  they  made  a  sort  of  fort,  or  as  Pike  calls 
it  a  "breastwork,"  of  logs  for  the  protection  of  the  main  body 
which  Pike  designed  to  leave  here  while  he,  with  three  of  his 


•  1 86  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

men,  should  scout  up  the  North  Fork,  or  Fontaine  qui  Bouille. 
This  was  the  first  estabHshment  of  any  kind  by  Americans, 
near  the  site  of  Pueblo,  or  in  any  part  of  Colorado. 

In  thirty-four  miles  Pike  reached  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
and  climbed  to  the  summit  of  one  where  the  snow  was  middle 
deep.  The  cold  was  intense,  and  the  party  suffered  greatly, 
as  they  were  not  clothed  for  winter.  In  fact  they  could 
hardly  be  said  to  be  clothed  at  all,  for  they  had  only  overalls 
and  no  socks.  Expeditions  in  fitting  out  are  inclined  to  go  to 
extremes.  They  either  show  an  absurd  contempt  for  equip- 
ment and  neglect  essentials,  or  they  load  themselves  down 
with  luxuries.'  In  breaking  the  Wilderness  the  majority  of 
parties  were  inadequately  supplied,  especially  with  food. 
Pike's  was  a  good  sample  of  this  lack  of  foresight.  Lewis  and 
Clark  fall  somewhat  in  the  same  category,  but  they  had  good 
luck.  From  the  summit  on  which  Pike  stood  he  could  see  the 
"Grand  Peak"  about  fifteen  miles  away,  the  same  which  after- 
wards was  given  his  name,  and  to-day  is  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated mountains  in  the  world,  because  it  is  not  only  high  and 
beautiful,  but  for  many  years  stood  an  emblem  of  the  danger 
and  privation  endured  by  those  who  entered  within  the  radius 
of  its  shining  top. 

Returning  to  the  main  camp  where  the  men  were  suffering 
from  lack  of  clothing  and  blankets.  Pike  led  the  way,  not 
south  to  the  headwaters  of  Red  River,  but  on  up  the  Arkan^ 
sas.  Just  what  his  idea  was  is  difficult  to  comprehend.  They 
had  bad  weather,  a  great  deal  of  snow,  and  severe  cold. 
Under  the  circumstances,  the  only  sensible  thing  to  have 
done,  was  to  find  a  good  place  for  a  camp,  and  from  that  point 
reconnoitre  thoroughly  before  making  the  next  move.  This 
would  have  spared  them  an  immense  amount  of  hardship,  and 
it  seems  to  me  what  sound  judgment  would  have  directed. 
Had  they  done  this,  they  would  have  found  the  trails  leading 

^  I  find  that  the  majority  of  men  object  to  having  an  over-abundance  of  pro- 
visions, even  of  the  staple  sort.  It  seems  often  to  be  considered  a  sort  of  cowardice 
to  provide  for  unforeseen  food  emergencies,  yet  these  are  the  very  ones  which 
wreck  expeditions.  Some  one  compact  staple  should  always  be  carried  in  extrava- 
gant quantity,  and  there  are  ways  of  doing  it. 


#188  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

toward  the  Spanish  settlements  and  the  heads  of  the  Canadian 
and  Red  rivers.  But,  instead,  they  went  blunderingly  on, 
entirely  unprepared  for  winter  in  any  climate,  yet  deliberately 
climbing  to  heights  where  they  would  be  in  that  of  the  North 
Pole.  They  finally  found  themselves  on  the  head  of  the 
South  Platte.  Here  they  saw  signs  of  a  large  party  they 
thought  was  that  of  Malgares,  but  it  was  natives.  Then  their 
troubles  increased,  mainly  because  they  had  no  suspicion  of 
where  they  ought  to  go  and  were  unprepared  for  going  any- 
where. They  blindly  followed  the  Platte  for  a  day  or  two  and 
then  concluded  to  strike  south-west  to  find  Red  River.  The 
result  was  they  got  on  the  head  of  the  Arkansas  again.  They 
had  neither  clothing,  blankets,  nor  shoes.  Had  they  en- 
camped in  the  beginning  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  they 
might  have  provided  themselves  abundantly  with  all  three. 
At  length  they  made  a  sled  to  carry  the  baggage,  and  after 
a  while  divided  into  eight  parties,  all  travelling  at  different 
rates. 

Pike  now  saw  that  he  was  not  on  Red  River  at  all,  but  he 
believed  he  had  seen  the  headwaters  of  "La  Platte,  the  Ark- 
ansaw,  and  the  Pierre  Jaune,"  and  here  perhaps  is  a  solution 
of  the  object  of  his  aimless  wandering.  He  wanted  to  make 
some  great  discovery.  He  was  correct  on  the  designation  of 
his  first  two  rivers,  but  not  on  the  third,  for  the  Roche  Jaune 
which  he  meant,  in  English  the  Yellowstone,  takes  its  rise 
at  least  three  hundred  miles  north  of  his  position.  After  a 
great  deal  of  wearisome  travel,  and  suffering  from  cold  and 
famine,  they  arrived  at  the  same  spot  where  they  had  en- 
camped on  December  loth,  at  the  mouth  of  what  is  now 
Currant  Creek  above  Cafton  City.  A  week  later  Pike  decided 
to  build  a  fort  here  for  the  protection  of  the  baggage,  and 
leave  the  interpreter  and  one  other  to  guard  it,  while  with 
packs  on  their  backs  all  the  rest  were  to  strike  out  afresh  across 
the  mountain  for  Red  River.  On  the  14th  of  January,  1807, 
they  started.  Each  carried  forty-five  pounds  and  some  pro- 
visions, making  with  his  arms  a  load  of  about  seventy  pounds, 
no  very  easy  weight  to  carry  continuously,  day  after  day.  Pro- 
ceeding southward  through  Wet  Mountain  valley  they  finally 


On  the  Rio  Grande  189 

came  to  the  head  of  the  Huerfano,  and  then  saw  the  great 
White  Mountain,  or  Blanca  Peak.'  Nine  of  the  men  now- 
frosted  their  feet,  and  on  the  20th,  three  days  after,  two  were 
in  such  a  condition  they  could  not  proceed,  and  on  the  22d 
they  were  left  behind  in  as  comfortable  circumstances  as  were 
possible.  All  the  provisions,  except  enough  for  one  meal, 
were  left  with  them.  Food  had  been  a  scarcer  thing  than  ever 
with  the  party,  and  a  day  or  two  before,  Pike  was  so  ex- 
hausted that  he  nearly  swooned. 

At  last,  on  the  28th  of  January,  they  stumbled  on  a  trail 
leading  down  the  "White  Mountains"  (Sierra  Blanca),  a  trail 
which  had  been  worked  by  men  and  had  hieroglyphs  cut  on 
trees.  This  was  through  Mosca  Pass,  9700  feet  altitude,  and 
following  it  westward  they  soon  saw  the  Rio  Grande  flowing 
southward,  and  thought  at  last  they  had  found  the  object  of 
their  search.  But  more  disappointments  were  in  preparation. 
They  were  now  in  San  Luis  valley  after  an  immense  amount 
of  misery  and  exhaustion  which  were  entirely  unnecessary. 
Had  they  sensibly  reconnoitred  from  their  breastwork  at  the 
Pueblo  site,  they  would  have  discovered  the  Pueblo-Ute- 
Spanish  trails  across  the  mountains  to  San  Luis  valley,  by 
way  of  Veta  and  of  Sangre  de  Cristo  passes.  They  could  also 
have  found  the  headwaters  of  the  Canadian,  and  those  of  Red 
River.  They  need  not  have  suffered  for  food  or  clothing,  and 
they  would  have  saved  time,  and  perhaps  have  avoided  the 
Spaniards,  if  Pike  really  intended  to  do  so. 

Here  they  shot  deer  and  supplied  themselves  with  meat, 
and  on  a  large  west  branch,  Rio  Conejos,  a  fort  was  built  about 
five  miles  from  the  junction,  on  the  north  bank.  This  was 
thirty-six  feet  square,  of  heavy  logs,  twelve  feet  high,  pro- 
tected at  the  top  by  sharp  stakes  slanting  over  for  about  thirty 
inches.  Around  this  they  made  a  moat  four  feet  wide,  filled 
with  water.  It  is  evident  that  Pike  saw  here  signs  of  Span- 
iards, and  expected  trouble  even  though  he  supposed  he 
was  on  Red  River  and   considered  himself  within  American 

'  See  the  frontispiece.  They  came  down  into  the  valley  behind  the  left-hand 
peak.  The  exact  route  from  Wet  Mountain  valley  to  the  Rio  Grande  is  uncertain, 
also  the  pass.     See  Coues  on  these  points. 


•  190  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

territory/  The  Spaniards  did  not  so  consider  Red  River,  as 
is  entirely  clear  from  the  expedition  of  Malgares.  No  matter 
where  they  found  Pike,  they  intended  to  turn  him  back 
or  take  him  prisoner.  The  doctor,  Robinson,  left  the  party 
now,  and  continued  on  to  Santa  Fe,  his  pretext  for  enter- 
ing being  Morrison's  claim  against  the  dishonest  LaLande, 
Morrison  having  requested  him  to  settle  the  matter. 

Some  men  were  now  sent  back  to  bring  in  those  left  behind, 
but  poor  Sparks  and  Dougherty,  the  ones  who  had  frozen  their 
feet,  could  not  travel;  they  sent  instead,  to  prove  it,  bones 
they  had  taken  out.  On  the  26th,  two  Frenchmen  visited  the 
fort  with  information  that  a  detachment  of  Spanish  soldiers 
was  coming  to  protect  the  Americans  from  an  attack  by  the 
Utes.  A  few  days  before  this  a  Spanish  dragoon  with  a  Pueblo 
had  come,  and  the  following  day,  the  17th  of  February,  they 
went  away.  They  had  been  sent  out  on  the  arrival  at  Santa 
Fe  of  Dr.  Robinson.  The  body  that  was  now  approaching 
was  therefore  aware  of  the  situation  and  accordingly  acted 
with  great  diplomacy.  Pike  considered  it  deception,  as  indeed 
it  was,  but  in  the  end  this  method  was  better  for  all  concerned 
than  a  cold  demand  for  surrender.  Fifty  dragoons  and  fifty 
mounted  militia  appeared  under  command  of  Don  Ignacio 
Salleto,  who  was  politeness  itself.  He  was  very  careful  not 
to  ruffle  Pike's  pride.  They  had  breakfast  and  then  Don 
Ignacio  put  in  operation  his  diplomacy.  He  said  :  "Sefior,  the 
Governor  of  New  Mexico  being  informed  you  had  missed  your 
route,  ordered  me  to  offer  you  in  his  name  mules,  horses, 
money,  or  whatever  you  may  stand  in  need  of  to  conduct  you 
to  the  head  of  Red  River,  as  from  Santa  Fe  to  where  it  is 
sometimes  navigable  is  eight  days'  journey,  and  we  have  guides 
and  the  routes  of  traders  to  conduct  us." 

"What,"  exclaimed  Pike,  "is  not  this  Red  River?" 

"No,  Sefior,  the  Rio  del  Norte." 

Pike  immediately  ordered  his  flag  to  be  taken  down,  for 
he  considered  he  had  committed  trespass.      From  the  Spanish 

'  Coues  pertinently  asks,  if  Pike  thought  himself  on  Red  River,  why  did  he 
cross  it  into  acknowledged  Spanish  territory  and  there  build  his  fort.  Robinson, 
also  knew  he  was  near  Santa  Fe. 


Pike  Captured  191 

point  of  view  he  had  been  a  trespasser  ever  since  he  left  the 
Missouri,  and  had  he  been  on  Red  River  it  would  have  made 
no  difference  to  them.  As  soon  as  he  consented  to  go  to 
Santa  Fe  to  visit  the  governor,  Don  Ignacio  ordered  his  men  to 
supply  the  Americans  with  blankets  and  provisions,  and  from 
this  time  on  they  were  comfortably  fed  again.  The  next  day 
Pike  discovered  the  agreeable  Don  Ignacio  writing  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  Governor,  thus  proving  that  he  was  not  himself 
going  on  with  Pike,  and  that  the  whole  American  company 
were  really  under  arrest.      They  would  not  have  been  able  to 


Vegetation  of  the  South- West- 
Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

resist,  anyhow,  in  their  destitute  condition.  It  was  too  late 
to  change  circumstances,  so  Pike  went  with  the  escort  down 
the  river.  On  the  road  at  one  of  the  villages  Baptiste  LaLande 
tried  to  play  the  spj^  upon  them,  but  did  not  succeed.  Arriv- 
ing at  Santa  Fe,  Governor  Allencaster  treated  Pike  politely, 
but  he  never  swerved  from  his  purpose  of  securing  all  of  Pike's 
papers  to  send  to  headquarters.  The  conversation  with  the 
Governor  was  carried  on  in  French,  a  language  which  neither 
appears  to  have  wielded  fluently. 

"You  came  to  reconnoitre  ourcountry ?  "  said  the  Governor„ 
"I  marched  to  reconnoitre  my  own,"  said  Pike. 
"In  what  character  are  you?"  asked  the  Governor. 


i  192  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

"In  my  proper  character,  an  officer  of  the  United  States 
Army,"  replied  Pike. 

Here  he  met  Pursley,  who  had  been  nearly  two  years  in 
Santa  Fe,  and  who  told  him  he  had  found  gold  on  the  head  of 
the  Platte,  and  had  carried  some  of  it  about  with  him  in  his 
shot  pouch  for  months,  till  he  believed  he  would  never  again 
reach  civilisation  and  threw  it  away.  This  is  the  first  Ameri- 
can mention  of  gold  existing  in  that  region.  He  told  the 
Spaniards  about  it,  and  they  wanted  him  to  show  the  way,  but 
he  concluded  it  was  on  American  territory,  and  also  that  such 
a  discovery  might  interfere  with  his  leaving  the  country. 
Copper  mining  was  going  on  in  New  Mexico  at  a  place  down 
the  river  below  Socorro. 

All  the  Americans  were  treated  well  at  Santa  Fe,  and 
presently  were  sent  under  escort  to  headquarters  of  General 
Salcedo,  at  Chihuahua.  The  commander  of  the  troop  was 
Malgares,  the  same  who  had  made  the  fruitless  tour  to  the 
Pawnee  country  to  intercept  Pike.  The  journey  to  Chihuahua 
was  most  agreeable,  for  Pike  and  Dr.  Robinson  had  become 
well  acquainted  at  Santa  Fe  with  Malgares  and  had  found  him 
a  delightful  personality.  Robinson  says,  "He  was  a  gentle- 
man, a  soldier,  and  one  of  the  most  gallant  men  you  ever 
knew,"  consequently,  excepting  the  fact  that  they  were 
prisoners,  the  route  southward,  in  the  splendid  sunny  air  of 
New  Mexico  and  Old,  was  agreeable  enough.  The  Americans 
were  everywhere  well  received  by  persons  in  authority,  and 
there  was  nothing  to  complain  of  in  this  respect. 

General  Salcedo  was  as  polite  as  Allencaster,  and,  though 
he  considered  the  invasion  "an  offence  of  magnitude,"  on 
full  consideration  it  was  decided  to  return  the  Americans  to 
their  own  country.  Accordingly,  they  were  sent  back  by  way 
of  San  Antonio  and  Nachitoches. 

Geographically,  Pike's  expedition  added  little  to  American 
knowledge  of  the  Wilderness,  yet  it  served  to  make  clearer  the 
conditions  existing  between  the  Missouri  and  the  foot  of  the 
mountains.  Politically  it  emphasised  the  claims  of  the  United 
States  in  that  direction,  but  much  remained  to  be  adjusted 
before  anything  definite  could  come  out  of  the  chaos. 


CHAPTER   XI 

A  Race  for  Life — Colter  Wins — The  Missouri  Fur  Company — The  American  Fury 
Company^ — The  Pacific  Fur  Company — A  Great  Project  Foredoomed — Disas-/ 
ter  at  the  Columbia  Bar — The  Destruction  of  the  Tonquin — Hunt  Starts  ioit 
the  Columbia  Overland — The  Voyageurs  Baulked — The  Caldron  Linn — Dog 
Steak  at  a  Premium — Misery  and  Danger — Success  at  Last. 


THE  fine  profits  obtained  by  the  British  fur  companies,  com- 
bined with  the  information  of  the  enormous  numbers  of 
beaver  existing  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  brought  back  by 
Lewis  and  Clark  'and  the  trappers  who  had  followed  at  their 
heels,  gave  a  sudden  impetus  to  the  movement  of  Americans 
into  the  new  Louisiana  acquisition.  The  expedition  of  Pike 
had  marked  the  trail  to  Santa  Fe  and  indicated  possibilities  of 
profitable  overland  trade  with  New  Mexico  when  the  Spanish 
Government  should  modify  its  restrictions.  Notwithstanding, 
therefore,  that  nobody  knew  just  where  Spanish  territory  be- 
gan and  where  that  of  the  United  States  ended,  American 
hunters  and  trappers  crossed  into  the  Wilderness  by  scores. 
Even  the  sparsely  settled  districts  of  the  Ohio  valley  proved 
irksome  to  them,  and  in  the  lead  was  the  veteran  Daniel 
Boone,  who  with  fourscore  years  upon  him  turned  his  back 
upon  the  land  he  had  done  so  much  to  win,  and  settled  at  La 
Charette,  the  French  village  beyond  St.  Louis. 

And  St.  Louis,  half  Spanish,  half  French,  had  now  become 
part  American.  Being  the  point  of  departure  for  all  parts  of 
the  Wilderness,   even  the  region   of  the  upper  Missouri,   to 

which  attention  was  now  mainly  directed,  it  began  every  day 

13  - 

193 


194  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

to  increase  in  size  and  importance.  Maxent,  La  Clede,  and 
Company  were  operating  from  this  point  before  the  cession  to 
the  United  States,  and  so  was  the  artful  and  slippery  Manuel 
Lisa,  who  was  believed  to  have  no  liking  for  Americans,  or  for 
any  other  competitors,  and  who,  justly  or  unjustly,  was  looked 
upon  with  suspicion  by  every  trapper  who  ventured  up  the 
river.  Lisa  annually  sent  trading  parties  in  that  direction, 
and  in  1807  he  made  the  journey  himself.  Perhaps  he  was  no 
worse  than  the  other  traders,  every  one  of  whom  was  striv^ing 
to  thwart  the  success  of  rivals.  He  was  about  thirty-five  years 
old,  and  in  cunning  and  business  intrigue  a  match  for  the 
keenest.  In  these  respects  he  was  the  opposite  of  another 
noted  character  of  the  time,  Auguste  Choteau,  a  French 
Creole,  whose  integrity  and  agreeable  personality  made  him 
as  much  liked  as  Lisa  was  mistrusted.  On  Lisa's  trip  up  the 
river  he  seems  to  have  had  with  him  the  trapper  Potts,  who 
had  been  one  of  the  Lewis  and  Clark  party;  and  later  he  em- 
ployed another  of  that  party.  Colter,  who  had  obtained  his 
release  from  Lewis  on  the  return  trip  when  they  met  Dixon 
and  Hancock. 

Colter  and  Potts  were  sent  trapping  in  the  Blackfoot 
country.  These  people  were  in  a  revengeful  mood  because  of 
the  fatal  encounter  with  Lewis  on  Maria's  River,  and  Colter 
and  Potts  were  on  the  alert  to  elude  them,  but  they  were  dis- 
covered. As  they  pushed  their  canoe  into  the  stream,  an 
arrow  struck  Potts.  He  then  fired  and  killed  a  man.  In- 
stantly he  was  riddled  by  arrows.  Colter  made  no  resistance. 
He  was  taken  on  shore  and  stripped.  They  thought  of  setting 
him  up  as  a  target,  but  the  chief  gave  him  a  chance  for  his  life, 
which  indicates  that  they  were  not  in  so  ferocious  a  temper  as 
has  been  assumed,  for  had  they  been  bent  on  blood  atonement 
for  the  deaths  on-  Maria's  River  they  would  have  given  Colter 
no  chance  at  all.  They  were  willing  to  make  a  game  of  it. 
The  chance  that  was  given  was  to  lead  the  captive  out  on  the 
prairie,  about  four  hundred  yards  in  advance  of  the  band,  and 
let  him  go  to  save  himself  if  he  could.  They  did  not  shoot  at 
him.  It  was  to  be  a  pure  test  of  speed.  Colter  ran  fast,  for 
he  was  a  good  runner  and  life  was  the  prize.     Only  one  pur- 


Canyon   of  the  Yeiiowsione  from  Grand  View. 

From  Wonderland,   1903 — Northern  Pacific   Railway. 


195 


•  196  Breaking  the   Wilderness 

suer  gained.  He  drew  nearer  and  nearer.  Colter  stopped, 
turned  round,  and  threw  up  his  hands.  The  blood,  owing  to 
his  severe  exertion,  had  flowed  from  his  nostrils  and  covered 
his  body,  making  a  startling  spectacle.  The  Blackfoot,  sur- 
prised, tried  to  halt  and  throw  his  spear,  but  exhausted,  he 
fell,  breaking  the  spear  as  he  went  down.  Colter  thrust  the 
sharp  point  into  the  man's  heart,  and  rushed  on  for  Jefferson 
River.  This  he  reached  while  the  Blackfeet  stopped  at  their 
fallen  comrade,  and  plunging  in  he  swam  to  an  island,  dived 
under  a  large  pile  of  driftwood,  and  raised  his  head  above  water 
amidst  the  sticks.  The  pursuers  mounted  the  pile  and  ranged 
the  whole  island  all  day  long,  but  it  did  not  occur  to  them  to 
dive  in  the  search.  Night  fell.  All  grew  quiet.  Colter  swam 
gently  down  a  long  distance,  and  then  started  for  Lisa's  fort, 
where,  after  seven  days'  hard  travel  and  exposure,  he  arrived. 

Lisa  went  back  to  St.  Louis  the  next  year,  1808,  but  Colter 
remained  till  18 10.  He  passed  through  the  geyser  region  of 
the  Yellowstone,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  white  man 
to  go  there.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  Yellowstone  was 
named  before  Lewis  and  Clark  made  their  journey,  and  by 
Frenchmen,  it  seems  probable  that  these  same  Frenchmen  had 
visited  the  geyser  region.  They  certainly  were  at  the  great 
canyon,  for,  as  before  noted,  they  would  not  otherwise  have 
applied  the  name  Yellowstone.  Colter,  therefore,  more  ex- 
actly may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  American  in  the  geyser 
basin.  When  he  arrived  at  St.  Louis  again,  he  met  there  the 
English  naturalist  Bradbury,  who  printed  the  story  of  his  race 
for  life  in  the  book  he  wrote,  from  which  it  has  been  |tran- 
scribed  many  times.  As  it  was  a  famous  incident,  I  venture 
to  give  it  again  in  a  much  condensed  form.' 

About  this  time  Henry,  one  of  Lisa's  trappers,  being 
obliged  to  abandon  his  post  at  the  three  forks,  because  of  the 
hostility  of  the  Blackfeet,  passed  over  to  the  headwaters  of  the 
Snake  and  built  a  trading-post  there,  the  very  first  establish- 
ment by  an  American  on  the  Pacific  slope,  excepting  Fort 
Clatsop,  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia. 

'  For  the  full  account  see  Bradbury,  Travels,  etc.,  original  edition,  page  17, 
footnote. 


John  Jacob  Astor 


97 


This  fort  of  Henry's  was  built  about  three  years  later  than  the 
one  Fraser  founded  for  the  North-west  Company  near  latitude 

54. 

The  shrewd  Lisa  perceived  that  power  was  necessary  in  the 
fur  business  to  secure  the  greatest  proftt,  and  as  this  required 
combination,  he  established,  in  the  winter  of  1808-09,  ^^^^ 
Missouri  Fur  Company,  with  William  Morrison  as  one  of  the 


A  Mansion  of  the  Wilderness. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.   Dellenbaugh. 


partners.  At  almost  the  same  moment,  a  keen  business  man 
of  New  York,  John  Jacob  Astor,  obtained  a  charter  from  the 
State  of  New  York  for  the  American  Fur  Company.  En- 
countering the  rivalry  of  the  Mackinaw  Company,  he  arranged 
with  some  of  the  members  of  the  North-west  Company  to  buy 
it  out,  and  they  obtained  possession  in  181 1.  Meanwhile,  the 
possibilities  of  the   North-west  and  the  region  traversed  by 


t  198  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Lewis  and  Clark  appealed  to  Astor's  business  sense,  and  in 
1810  he  organised  another  company  to  operate  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia,  called  the  Pacific  Fur  Company.  His  plan 
was  to  establish  a  line  of  trading-posts  along  the  Missouri  and 
Columbia  to  the  Pacific,  where,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia, 
a  chief  station  was  to  be  maintained,  to  receive  furs  and  dis- 
tribute supplies.  An  annual  ship  was  to  keep  this  post  in 
touch  with  New  York.  The  scheme  was  entirely  feasible,  but 
in  the  execution  of  it  every  circumstance  appeared  to  conspire 
for  defeat.  Some  enterprises  float  easily  across  every  obstacle, 
while  others  seem  to  create  barriers  which  grow  to  enormous 
proportions. 

When  Fraser  established  his  post  west  of  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains in  1806,  it  was  intended  that  he  should  move  down  and 
explore  all  the  country  to  the  southward.  Later  another 
party  was  dispatched  under  David  Thompson  especially  to 
forestall  Astor's  people  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  Astor, 
himself,  endeavoured  to  conciliate  the  British  companies  by 
offering  them  a  third  interest  in  his  Pacific  Company,  but 
they  declined.  He  next  engaged  a  number,  of  North-west 
men  for  his  enterprise,  to  gain  the  advantage  of  their  experi- 
ence, but  in  this  he  seems  to  have  made  a  mistake.  As  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  were  on  the  verge  of  war,  it 
would  have  been  better  if  the  concern  had  been  made  purely 
American.  In  prominent  positions  there  were  only  two  citi- 
zens of  the  Republic:  Wilson  Price  Hunt,  of  New  Jersey, 
chief  agent;  and  Jonathan  Thorn,  a  lieutenant  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  on  leave  to  command  the  first  supply  ship,  the 
Tonquin,  a  vessel  doomed  to  strange  destruction.  The  new 
company  organised  on  June  23,  1810,  Astor  holding  one  half 
of  the  hundred  shares,  while  the  other  half  was  distributed 
among  the  several  partners.  Hunt  was  to  go  overland  and 
remain  at  the  chief  station  five  years. ^ 

Some  of  the  partners  were  to  go  by  the  Tonquin.  These 
were  all  British  subjects,  Scotchmen.  There  were,  besides, 
mechanics,  and  thirteen  voyageurs,  the  latter  coming  down 
from  Canada  in  a  birch-bark  canoe  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain 

*  For  full  details  of  this  undertaking  see  Washington  Irving's  Astoria. 


Death  at  the  Bar  199 

and  the  Hudson,  singing,  gaily  as  they  came.  Could  they  have 
foreseen  the  future,  the  song  would  have  died  in  their  throats. 
Of  all  the  expeditions  ever  set  on  foot,  this  one,  perhaps,  met 
with  the  most  continuous  disaster.  Although  well  planned, 
the  Fates  appeared  to  be  opposed  in  this  direction  to  Astor's 
success.  The  British  had  an  eye  on  it  and  intended  to  baulk 
it  if  they  could.  For  one  thing  they  meant  to  stop  the  Ton- 
quin  and  impress  the  voyageurs,  which  they  thought  would 
cripple  the  enterprise.  The  Constitution,  the  ship  soon  to 
make  its  name  forever  famous,  was  sent  for  some  distance  as 
a  convoy,  but  nothing  happened  except  that  the  voyageiirs 
became  seasick,  and  the  foreign  partners  and  Captain  Thorn 
failed  to  harmonise.  Thorn  looked  upon  them  with  suspicion, 
and  did  not  conceal  his  opinion  that  they  were  working  against 
the  company's  interests.  He  particularly  disliked  McDougall 
who  was  next  to  Hunt  in  authority. 

Thorn  was  a  capable  officer  on  the  high  seas,  and  he  sailed 
the  Tonquin  successfully  from  the  starting  day,  September  lo, 
1810,  to  that  on  which  he  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Colum- 
bia, March  22,  181 1.  .Then  he  seems  to  have  lost  his  caution. 
Instead  of  lying  off  to  wait  for  favourable  weather  to  run  the 
breakers,  he  immediately  ordered  chief  mate  Fox,  a  seaman, 
John  Martin,  and  three  voyageiirs,  notwithstanding  Fox's 
protest  and  that  of  the  partners,  to  reconnoitre  the  entrance 
in  a  small  boat.  They  were  never  seen  again.  The  wind 
abating,  two  days  later  the  ship  anchored  under  Cape  Disap- 
pointment. Search  was  made  for  the  missing  men,  but  with 
no  result.  The  Tonquin  then  approached  the  bar,  but  the 
captain  was  afraid  to  run  through,  and  sent  the  second  mate 
in  the  pinnace  to  pilot  the  way.  He  was  nearly  lost.  Another 
attempt  was  made,  but  the  ship  struck  on  the  bar  repeatedly, 
and  the  waves  broke  over  her.  The  pinnace,  which  had  again 
attempted  to  pilot,  was  swept  away  with  five  men  on  board, 
while  the  ship,  in  great  danger  of  complete  wreck,  came  to 
anchor  in  seven  fathoms.  At  last  they  got  under  Cape  Dis- 
appointment once  more,  and  were  safe.  On  searching  the 
coast  for  the  lost  men  of  the  pinnace,  only  two  were  found. 
Thus  eight  lives  were  sacrificed  to  the  buU-headedness  of  this 


i  200  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

crusty  captain.  It  was  a  full  measure  of  what  was  in  store  for 
the  ill-fated  enterprise.  Had  Thorn  used  a  small  amount  of 
common  sense,  he  could  have  passed  the  bar  without  losing  a 
man. 

At  length  the  Tonquin  was  inside,  and  after  much  wrangling 
between  the  captain  and  the  foreign  partners,  a  settlement  was 
begun  on  what  they  called  Point  George.  To  this  the  name 
Astoria  was  given  in  honour  of  the  head  of  the  company. 
When  the  supplies  had  been  landed,  the  Tonquin  went  up  the 
coast  to  trade,  with  McKay  to  direct.  Against  the  advice  of 
the  interpreter,  a  native  from  down  the  coast,  they  anchored 
in  Neweetee  Bay  on  the  southern  end  of  Vancouver  Island. 
McKay  went  ashore  and  was  well  received,  for  six  natives  were 
held  on  board  as  hostages.  The  people  of  this  bay  had  a  bad 
reputation,  which  perhaps  means  that  they  saw  through  the 
game  of  the  traders.  Great  numbers  came  the  following 
morning  to  trade  and  as  they  sought  high  prices,  doubtless 
one  per  cent,  of  real  value.  Thorn  grew  angry  and  threw  the 
chief  overboard.  When  McKay  returned,  the  interpreter 
urged  immediate  departure,  but  Thorn  scorned  his  advice. 
Astor  had  particularly  instructed  not  to  allow  many  natives  on 
board  at  one  time,  but  this  was  ignored.  Next  morning  they 
came  again  with  their  furs;  canoe  after  canoe  arrived  till  the 
deck  was  thronged.  The  captain  saw  indications  of  trouble. 
He  ordered  men  aloft  to  make  sail  while  others  weighed 
anchor.  The  natives  were  eager  to  trade,  especially  for 
knives,  and  they  quickly  obtained  a  great  many,  so  that  when 
the  command  was  given  to  clear  ship,  they  uttered  a  yell  and 
fell  upon  the  unprepared  crew. 

Thorn  fought  desperately,  for  he  was  no  coward,  and 
though  he  had  only  a  clasp  knife,  he  killed  several  before  a 
blow  from  behind  laid  him  low  forever.  Four  of  the  men  aloft 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  cabin  alive  and  speedily  cleared  the 
deck  with  the  muskets  that  were  there.  All  the  rest  of  the 
day  the  natives  kept  off.  The  ship's  clerk,  Lewis,  was  one  of 
the  first  struck,  and  he  had  fallen  down  the  hatchway  with  a 
serious  wound.  He  recovered  sufficiently  to  discuss  the  situa- 
tion  with  the   four  other  survivors.     The    latter  would   not 


:t 


202  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

attempt  to  sail  the  ship,  as  they  thought  they  could  not  get 
her  out  of  the  bay,  so  they  put  off  in  the  night  in  one  of  the 
boats.  Lewis,  it  is  said,  declined  to  go  on  account  of  his 
wound,  thinking  he  would  die  soon  anyhow.  He  therefore 
made  a  plan  for  revenge.  He  arranged  the  powder  so  that  he 
could  instantly  explode  it,  and  when  the  fair  morning  sun 
again  shone  on  the  bay  he  stood  on  the  deck  and  beckoned  to 
some  natives  to  come  aboard.  As  he  was  the  only  one  to  be 
seen,  they  finally  climbed  up  the  Tonquin  s  sides.  The  decks 
were  presently  again  thickly  crowded,  all  eager  to  secure  the 
rich  prizes.  At  this  moment  Lewis  executed  his  intention. 
The  waters  of  the  bay  were  strewn  with  wreckage  intermingled 
with  dead  and  dying.  A  hundred  or  more  were  annihilated 
and  another  grewsome  tale  was  added  to  the  long  list  de- 
scribing the  intercourse  between  the  opposing  factions  for  the 
mastery  of  the  Wilderness.  The  four  men  were  prevented 
from  leaving  the  bay  by  stress  of  weather,  and  took  refuge  in 
a  cove  for  shelter,  where  they  were  captured  and  taken  back 
to  the  village.  They  were  sacrificed  with  every  cruelty  known 
to  the  enraged  natives.  Thus  ended  the  first  trading  venture 
of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company. 

Before  the  Tonquin  left  Astoria,  the  party  arrived  from  the 
upper  Columbia  under  command  of  David  Thompson  of  the 
North-west  Company, — the  expedition  designed  to  forestall 
the  American  settlement  at  this  point,  but  it  was  a  little  too 
late.  Thompson  had  accomplished  the  first  descent  of  the 
Columbia  above  Snake  River.  He  was  well  received  by  his 
compatriots,  especially  by  McDougall,  who  was  in  charge 
pending  Hunt's  arrival.  McDougall  did  not  conceal  his  de- 
votion to  the  British  Crown,  and  it  was  this  which  so  ex- 
asperated Captain  Thorn.  Thompson  finally  left,  returning 
by  the  road  he  had  come.  He  was  astronomer  and  geographer 
of  the  North-west  Company,  and  made  notes  that  are  of  great 
value.' 

Meanwhile  Hunt  was  bravely  setting  in  motion  a  second 
train  of  disasters.     With  Donald  McKenzie,  another  of  the 

'  See   New  Light  on  the  Early  History  of  the  Greater  North-  JVest,  by  Dr. 
Elliott  Coues. 


Hunt's  Departure 


203 


foreign  partners,  he  went  in  June,  18 10,  to  Montreal,  the 
great  fur-trading  centre,  and  secured  canoes  and  voyageurs  for 
the  overland  journey.  The  party  proceeded  by  way  of  the 
Ottawa  River,  Mackinaw,  Green  Bay,  Fox  River,  the  Wiscon- 
sin, and  the  Mississippi  to  St.  Louis,  the  route  that  had  been 
the  first  from  the  east  into  the  Mississippi  Wilderness,  and 
which  had  been  a  highway  ever  since.  Lisa's  Missouri  Fur 
Company  was  at  this  time  fitting  out  an  expedition  to  go  in 


The  Deadly  Rdit.er. 

From  The  Mystic  Mid-Region  by  A.  J,  Burdick. 

Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 


search  of  Henry,  who,  as  already  mentioned,  had  been  driven 
from  his  station  at  the  forks  of  the  Missouri,  and  Lisa  was  in 
doubt  as  to  his  whereabouts.  The  Spaniard  looked  with  dis- 
favour on  the  new  rival,  but  this  was  no  more  than  all  the  fur 
traders  were  in  the  habit  of  doing.  He  did  what  he  could  to 
check  the  enterprise  without  open  hostility,  but  Hunt's  plans 
progressed,  nevertheless,  and  he  soon  had  his  affairs  in  order. 
Bradbury,  an  English  naturalist,  had  been  for  some  time 
making  St.  Louis  headquarters,  and  was  desirous  of  going  up 


g  204  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

the  Missouri  for  specimens.  Hunt  at  once  cordially  invited 
him  and  another  English  naturalist,  Nuttall,  to  accompany 
him  as  far  as  they  wished  to  go.  Bradbury  afterwards  wrote 
the  book  which  is  now  so  well  known,  and  which  throws  a 
valuable  side-light  on  the  starting  of  Hunt  s  party.  He  also 
tells  much  about  the  natives,  of  whom  he  remarks,  "No  people 
on  earth  discharge  the  duties  of  hospitality  with  more  cordial 
good-will." 

On  the  2ist  of  October,  1810,  Hunt  left  St.  Louis  with  the 
intention  of  wintering  not  far  up  the  river,  and  in  the  spring 
following  the  trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia.  He  had  three  boats,  two  being  barges,  and  the 
third  a  "keel"  boat.  The  winter  camp  was  made  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Nadowa,  where  several  new  men  joined  the  ranks,  not- 
withstanding that  it  was  considered  a  rather  desperate  venture. 
About  the  end  of  April,  181 1,  all  being  ready,  the  party 
started  up  the  muddy  Missouri  with  four  boats,  one  of  which 
mounted  a  swivel  and  two  howitzers.  The  number  of  persons 
in  the  company  now  amounted  to  sixty,  almost  too  many  for 
success.  Forty  of  these  were  Canadian  voyageiirs,  who,  while 
exceedingly  useful  in  their  sphere  of  boatmen,  were  not  so 
serviceable  away  from  their  craft,  just  as  a  good  sailor  is  out 
of  his  element  on  horseback.  But  in  those  days  no  fur  trader 
thought  of  travelling  without  them,  and  the  North  west  and 
Hudson  Bay  Companies  employed  them  by  hundreds.  The 
rivers  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  however,  were  entirely 
different  from  those  flowing  from  the  eastern  slopes.  Had 
Hunt  been  aware  of  this,  he  would  have  sent  his  forty  voyageurs 
back,  before  crossing  the  mountains,  where  their  peculiar  abili- 
ties were  of  less  advantage.  Indeed,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
idea  of  utilising  them,  it  is  likely  that  the  story  of  this  traverse 
would  have  been  less  painful. 

Little  trouble  was  experienced  from  natives,  although  the 
latter  had  now  been  shot  and  cheated  for  ^  sufificient  time  to 
render  them  dangerous.  Alexander  Carson,  now  with  Hunt, 
was  the  man  who  had  shot  a  Sioux  not  long  before,  just  to  try 
his  skill.  Some  tribes,  too,  wished  to  injure  others  by  prevent- 
ing traders  from  reaching  them,  thus  compelling  manufactured 


Manuel  Lisa  Again 


205 


articles  to  pass  through  their  own  hands,  whereby  they  made  a 
profit.  This  was  a  cause  of  some  difficulty.  In  addition,  the 
rival  fur  companies  used  means,  honourable  and  dishonourable, 
to  injure  each  other,  and  they  sometimes  had  serious  battles. 
They  would  also  incite  against  newcomers  natives  with  whom 
they  had  traded,  and  this  was  a  frequent  source  of  disaster. 


Shoshone  Falls,  Idaho,  from  South  Side,  Below. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


Two  men  with  Hunt,  Ramsay  Crooks  and  McClellan,  believed 
that  Lisa  in  this  way  had  induced  the  Sioux  a  couple  of  years 
before,  to  thwart  their  plans,  and  McClellan  was  still  incensed 
to  such  a  degree  that  he  declared  he  would  shoot  Lisa  on  sight. 
As  the  latter  diplomatic  gentleman  was  also  bound  up  the  river 
a  few  days  behind  Hunt,  and  had  sent  word  that  he  would  like 
to  travel  with  him  to  strengthen  both  parties,  the  outlook  was 


•  2o6  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

precarious.  The  whole  party  were  suspicious  of  Lisa's  motives, 
and  Hunt  endeavoured  to  keep  in  advance.  His  chief  inter- 
preter, Pierre  Dorion,  a  son  of  the  Dorion  who  had  gone  with 
Lewis  and  Clark  for  a  time,  had  been  in  Lisa's  employ,  and 
there  was  a  fierce  disagreement  between  them  as  to  certain 
large  amounts  of  whiskey  which  Dorion  had  imbibed,  and  which 
Lisa  had  modestly  charged  against  him  at  ten  dollars  a  quart. 
The  Spaniard  had  a  barge  manned  by  twenty  expert  boatmen, 
and  he  knew  the  river.  It  was  ^-herefore  only  a  few  days 
before  he  overtook  the  Hunt  party.  With  him  was  Henry 
Brackenridge,  who  later  wrote  a  valuable  book,  and  this  man 
with  Bradbury  and  Nuttall  laboured  as  peace  preservers,  and 
though  Dorion  and  Lisa  had  a  dramatic  scene,  with  McClellan 
ever  ready  to  exterminate  the  perfidious  Lisa  on  the  spot, 
there  was  no  bloodshed.  To  make  matters  worse,  Lisa  used 
towards  Hunt  an  expression  that  roused  his  ire,  so  that  for  a 
day  or  two  the  rival  crews  barely  spoke.  At  last,  however, 
the  Hunt  people  decided  that  Lisa  was  bent  on  no  immediate 
mischief,  and  amicable  relations  were  established. 

Arriving  at  an  Arikara  village,  some  distance  below  the 
Mandan  towns,  Hunt  began  preparations  to  leave  the  river 
and  strike  across  the  country,  thus  abandoning  the  trail  of 
Lewis  and  Clark.  He  was  induced  to  take  this  step  by  three 
trappers  he  had  met  and  employed,  Robinson,  Hoback,  and 
Rizner,  wlio  had  been  in  the  country  at  the  head  of  the  Mis- 
souri. The  change  was  a  good  one,  and  had  Hunt  dispensed 
with  the  voyageurs  at  this  point,  he  would  have  clung  to  his 
horses  all  the  way,  which  would  have  saved  much  time  and 
suffering,  but  he  took  the  boatmen  along,  though  he  exchanged 
the  boats  with  Lisa  for  horses,  of  which  the  latter  had  a  sup- 
ply at  his  fort  at  the  Mandan  towns.  Thither  Crooks  and 
Bradbury  went  to  bring  them  down.  Meanwhile  the  voyageurs 
fraternised  with  the  Arikaras  and  were  particularly  devoted  to 
the  women,  whose  temporary  favours  were  readily  purchased. 
Bradbury  says:  "Travellers  who  have  been  acquainted  with 
savages  have  remarked  that  they  are  either  very  liberal  of 
their  women  to  strangers  or  extremely  jealous.  In  this  species 
of  liberality  no  nation  can  be  exceeded  by  the  Arikaras,  who 


The  Treacherous  Rose 


207 


flocked  down  every  evening  with  their  wives,  sisters,  and 
daughters,  each  anxious  to  meet  with  a  market  for  them." 
And  yet  if  a  white  man  adopted  regular  relations  they  ex- 
pected him  to  continue  them,  and  not  abandon  his  wife  as  was 
so  often  done.     Their  code  was  a  peculiar  one. 

Bradbury  and  Nuttall  here  left  the  Hunt  party  and  re- 
turned, while  on  the  i8th  of  July,  181 1,  the  Astorians,  having 
also  said  good-bye  to  Lisa,  who  had  been  of  more  service  than 
detriment,  turned  their  faces  toward  the  Backbone  of  the 
Continent.     A  man  named  Rose  was  engaged,  with  the  ex- 


Shoshone  Falls,  Snake  River,  Idaho,  from  Below. 

Sketch  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


pectation  that  he  would  be  serviceable  in  the  Crow  country, 
as  he  had  been  a  good  deal  with  that  tribe,  but  Hunt  dis- 
covered indications  of  treachery,  and  was  glad  on  reaching  the 
Crows  to  pay  Rose  off  and  let  him  depart.  Crossing  the  Black 
Hills,  and  the  Bighorn  Mountains,  they  kept  up  the  Bighorn 
to  Wind  River,  and  on  the  14th  of  September  camped  at  a 
place  where  a  large  fork  came  down  from  the  Wind  River 
Mountains.  It  will  be  noticed  that  mountains  and  streams 
were  already  named,  showing  that  white  men  had  frequently 
been  in  this  region.  In  fact,  the  trappers  with  Hunt  knew  it 
pretty  well,  and  told  him  that  if  he  followed  up  Wind  River 


•    2o8  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

and  crossed  a  single  mountain  range  he  would  be  on  the  head- 
waters of  the  Columbia,  but  game  being  scarce,  he  decided  to 
go  to  another  stream  which  they  said  flowed  to  the  south  of 
west  beyond  the  Wind  River  range.  This  was  Spanish  River, 
now  the  Green,  the  upper  continuation  of  the  Colorado.  They 
found  a  beaten  trail  leading  that  way  and  followed  it  over 
some  very  high  ground  whence  the  trappers  pointed  out  the 
Three  Tetons.  These  magnificent  peaks  Hunt  called  the 
Pilot  Knobs!  They  were  hailed  with  joy,  for  they  marked 
the  end  of  the  first  stage  of  the  journey,  but  had  the  party 
been  able  to  look  ahead  their  joy  would  have  collapsed  in  tears. 
Descending  into  Green  River  Valley,  afterwards  famous  as  the 
place  of  rendezvous  for  trappers,  they  found  it  delightful,  with 
grassy  glades  and  plenty  of  buffalo,  as  well  as  other  game. 

This  was  a  crucial  point  for  Hunt.  Had  he  decided  to 
stick  to  his  horses  till  he  was  sure  of  the  navigation,  the  party 
would  have  escaped  much  misery,  but  instead  of  camping  here, 
amidst  plenty  of  game,  till  the  path  could  be  reconnoitred,  he 
stopped  only  five  days  to  lay  in  a  supply  of  buffalo  meat  and 
then  went  on.  Winter  with  rapid  strides  was  approaching, 
yet  they  would  have  gained  time  by  tarrying  here,  with  scouts 
thrown  ahead.  But  they  moved  without  knowing  what  to 
expect.  Hoback  had  been  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Snake 
and  he  led  them  by  way  of  a  small  stream  they  called  Hoback's 
River  to  a  large  branch.  This,  because  of  its  rapid  and  fierce 
current,  was  named  Mad  River.  The  voyageurs  were  tired 
enough  of  horses,  and  were  eager  to  sail  down  on  this  im- 
petuous tide,  so,  without  even  scouting  beforehand,  trees  were 
felled  to  make  canoes.  Several  men  were  then  sent  down  the 
stream,  but  before  they  returned  two  Snakes  came  along  and 
informed  them  that  navigation  was  impossible.  When  the 
men  came  back  they  gave  the  same  report.  Here  was  a 
chance  to  find  out  much  concerning  the  region  before  them, 
but  no  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made.  Robinson,  Hoback, 
and  Rizner,  who  had  been  with  Henry,  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
pany, now  advised  going  to  Henry's  post,  to  which  the  Snakes 
were  quite  willing  to  guide  them.  After  four  days'  travel 
they  reached  it  amid  a  flurry  of  snow. 


Shoshone  Falls,  Snake  River,  Idaho,  from  Above,  South  Side. 
Photograph  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 


209 


2IO  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Henry  had  gone,  but  they  were  glad  to  occupy  the  de- 
serted cabins.  The  stream  they  were  now  on  was  large  and 
swift,  probably  the  main  Snake  River,  and  the  fatal  canoe  idea 
cropped  up  again.'  Timber  was  felled  and  boats  soon  com- 
pleted. One  advantage  of  travelling  with  horses  Hunt  seems 
now  to  have  lost  sight  of:  they  can  always  be  consumed  as 
food.  But  Hunt  decided  to  leave  them  here,  and  to  establish 
the  first  of  the  trading-posts.  The  two  Snakes  were  hired  to 
look  after  their  welfare.  Four  trappers  had  been  dropped  to 
begin  work  on  Mad  River,  and  now  five  more  were  left  at  this 
place  to  go  into  the  mountains. 

Fifteen  canoes  having  been  completed,  the  expedition 
pushed  off  on  October  i6th,  and  swept  rapidly  down  the 
stream  all  unknown.  For  some  fifty  miles  affairs  went  well. 
Then  the  river  began  to  plunge  among  rocks,  two  canoes  were 
swamped,  one  of  them  smashed,  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
cargoes  swept  away.  They  continued  with  great  labour,  and 
on  the  28th  met  with  a  sad  disaster.  The  canoe  of  Ramsay 
Crooks  struck  a  rock  in  one  of  the  rapids  and  was  capsized. 
Four  men,  including  Crooks,  managed  to  save  themselves,  but 
the  fifth,  Clappine,  an  expert  voyagetir,  was  dashed  away  in 
the  torrent  and  lost.  This  was  at  the  beginning  of  a  very  bad 
stretch  of  river,  hemmed  in  for  miles  by  high  cliffs  of  several 
hundred  feet,  so  foaming  and  torrential  that  they  named  it 
the  Caldron  Linn.  The  country  was  excessively  barren.  The 
provisions  had  dwindled  to  no  more  than  five  days'  supply. 
The  situation  was  desperate.  In  these  straits  it  was  decided 
to  split  up  into  small  parties,  which  should  set  out  in  different 
directions,  the  idea  being  that  it  would  be  easier  thus  to  ob- 
tain subsistence.  One  party  went  down  the  river,  Crooks  with 
five  others  started  back  toward  Fort  Henry  to  get  the  horses, 
and  another  under  McKenzie  went  north. 

With  Hunt  there  remained  thirty-four  persons,  three  being 
Dorion's  squaw  and  her  two  children,  aged  two  and  four. 
Like  Sacajawea,  on  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition,  she  was  a 
sturdy  and  uncomplaining  traveller,  resourceful  and  resolute. 

'  I  have  not  seen  the  original  journal  of  Hunt.  Irving,  not  knowing  the  coun- 
try, does  not  always  make  the  trail  perfectly  clear. 


The  Snake  Desert 


211 


The  goods  were  cached  at  Caldron  Linn,  which  consumed  three 
days,  and  then  Crooks  and  his  men  came  back  discouraged 
about  reaching  the  place  where  the  horses  had  been  left. 
Without  these,  and  with  no  chance  of  using  the  river,  progress 
toward  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  would  be  slow.  They 
were  not  only  breaking  the  Wilderness,  but  they  were  doing 


Boat  Made  of  Framework  of  Sticks  Covered  with  Bison-  or  Horse-hide.     Frequently  Used 
in  Early  Days  of  the  West. 

From  The  Trail  of  Lewis  and  Clark  by  O.  D.  Wheeler. 

it  in  the  hardest  possible  way.  Hunt  followed  the  stream  for 
a  time  and  then  on  the  advice  of  some  natives  he  led  the  party 
across  the  desert  country  to  the  northward.  As  one  to-day, 
even  under  favourable  circumstances,  rides  over  the  wide  waste 
of  lava-covered  plain  lying  north  of  the  Snake,  he  cannot  fail 
to  be  impressed  by  the  sweep  of  giant  snowy  ranges  that  en- 
circle the  horizon.   To   Hunt,   these  gleaming  barriers  must 


212  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

have  presented  a  deeply  sinister  aspect.  His  party  was  on  the 
verge  of  starvation,  when  they  arrived  at  a  little  river  where 
there  was  a  Shoshone  camp.  Here  some  fish  and  a  couple  of 
dogs  were  bought,  enough  to  give  them  a  supper.  They  also 
secured  a  couple  of  horses,  and  then  went  on.  At  last  they 
tried  to  leave  the  river,  but  returned  to  it  again  after  severe 
climbing  through  deep  snow,  and  next  day  met  Crooks  and 
his  men  on  the  point  of  starvation  coming  up  stream.  Hunt 
had  traded  for  a  couple  more  horses  with  some  Shoshones,  and 
one  of  these  he  now  killed,  making  a  hasty  canoe  out  of  the 
skin  with  which  to  send  Crooks  some  of  the  meat.  Crooks 
came  over  in  the  boat,  and  reported  that  his  party  had  been 
reduced  to  some  soles  of  old  moccasins  for  food.  Hunt  now 
decided  to  go  back  up  the  river  in  search  of  a  Snake  camp, 
where  they  might  barter  for  more  horses  and  dogs,  but  a  new 
difficulty  appeared.  Crooks  and  one  other  were  so  feeble 
they  could  not  travel.  The  party  wished  to  leave  them  but 
Hunt  refused  to  do  this.  Five  stayed  with  him  and  the  rest 
left.  The  stock  of  provisions  finally  dwindled  to  three  beaver 
skins,  and  taking  one  of  these  Hunt  at  last  pushed  on  to  over- 
take those  who  had  gone  in  order  that  he  might  persuade 
Dorion,  who  now  had  the  only  horse,  a  bony  creature,  to 
sacrifice  it  for  the  benefit  of  Crooks.  But  Dorion  pleaded  for 
the  animal  and  they  went  ahead  a  little  farther,  when  they 
surprised  a  Snake  camp,  where  a  number  of  horses  were  graz- 
ing. The  natives  ran,  and  the  whites  seized  five  of  the  horses 
and  soon  were  devouring  one,  while  a  messenger  was  hurried 
■  back  to  Crooks  with  some  of  the  meat  on  another. 

Some  of  Crooks's  party  were  across  the  river  in  a  starving 
condition  and  could  see  and  hear  distinctly.  When  Crooks 
came  he  sent  meat  over  to  them,  and  one  voyagciir  jumped 
wildly  into  the  frail  skin  canoe  to  return.  When  he  came  near 
the  shore,  the  sight  of  the  roasting  meat  caused  him  to  deliri- 
ously clap  his  hands  and  dance,  which  operation  upset  the  canoe 
and  the  poor  fellow  disappeared  in  the  furious  current.  The 
boatman  was  saved  with  difficulty.  John  Day,  who  had  been 
one  of  the  strongest,  was  now  a  mere  skeleton,  barely  able  to 
walk,  and  all  were  extremely  emaciated.     About   December 


Farewell  to  Snake  River  213 

15th,  they  arrived  at  a  little  creek  which  they  had  crossed  on 
the  26th  of  November,  and  here  discovered  a  dozen  Shoshone 
lodges,  and  on  up  the  stream  were  more.  Hunt  traded  for  a 
couple  of  horses,  a  dog,  and  some  dried  fish  and  roots.  From 
these  natives  he  tried  to  secure  a  guide,  but  they  urged  him  to 
remain  with  them,  though  at  last  one  consented  to  go  for 
large  pay. 

On  December  21st  they  went  down  the  creek  to  Snake 
River,  and  down  this  a  short  distance  in  search  of  some  rafts. 
These  were  not  found  and  two  horses  were  killed  to  make  a 
canoe  out  of  their  skins.  The  river  was  full  of  floating  ice, 
and  the  frail  canoe  gave  them  much  trouble,  but  on  December 
23d,  breaking  the  shore  ice,  they  succeeded  in  crossing. 
Crooks's  party  were  waiting  for  them,  and  they  all  moved  for- 
ward together,  under  the  guidance  of  the  native  and  two  of  his 
companions.  The  voyageurs  were  happy  to  say  farewell  to 
this  perilous  stream,  so  unlike  any  they  had  ever  seen  before. 

The  ground  was  snow  covered,  the  weather  stormy,  but 
fortified  by  a  meal  of  horse  meat  once  in  twenty-four  hours, 
they  moved  on  toward  the  Blue  Mountains,  a  superb  range 
which  one  sees  well  from  the  railway  now  crossing  the  north- 
east corner  of  Oregon  about  on  the  trail  that  Hunt  was  fol- 
lowing. On  the  29th,  Pierre  Dorion  was  made  a  father,  and 
his  squaw  had  three  children  in  place  of  the  two  she  had  thus 
far  dragged  through  all  the  difficulties.  Dorion's  horse  now 
came  into  full  service  for  the  transportation  of  this  increased 
family.  One  of  the  voyageurs,  La  Bonte,  here  gave  out,  and 
had  to  take  to  another  horse  which  had  been  packed.  Hunt 
himself  carrying  the  load.  This  La  Bonte  seems  to  be  the 
same  that  Ruxton  '  afterwards  wrote  about.  On  the  last  day 
of  the  year  they  came  to  a  wide  valley  without  snow  and  here 
camped  for  New  Year's  Day,  1812,  and  as  much  revelry  as 
possible  was  indulged  in.  Some  Shoshone  tipis  being  nearby, 
they  did  not  lack  for  dog  and  horse  steaks,  and  began  to  feel 
in  better  mood.  They  finally  crossed  the  Blue  Mountains 
and  descended  into  the  valley  of  the  Umatilla,  where  there 
was   no   snow,    and   the   weather   was   mild,    for   they   were 

1  Life  in  the  Far  West.     G.  F,  A.  Ruxton. 


214  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

approaching  sea  level.  Dorion's  infant  now  died,  but  there  was 
no  halt  on  this  account.  All  pressed  on,  encouraged  by  sights 
of  deer  and  of  horse  tracks,  till  they  came  to  a  large  camp  of 
Sciatogas,  or  Tushepaws,  where  there  was  plenty  of  every- 
thing they  needed,  with  at  least  two  thousand  horses  grazing 
on  the  hills.  Hunt  was  now  but  two  days*  march  from  the 
Columbia.  Horses  were  cheap  and  the  men  ate  their  fill, 
though  these  Amerinds  did  not  eat  horses  or  dogs.  Proceed- 
ing they  came  at  last  to  the  Columbia,  having  occupied  six 
months  in  traversing  the  Wilderness  from  the  Arikara  village. 
Had  they  stuck  to  their  horses,  they  might  have  done  it  in 
four.  Part  of  this  wide  stretch  had  been  entirely  unknown  to  \ 
white  men,  and  Hunt's  expedition,  therefore,  as  an  American 
exploration,  ranks  second  to  that  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  while  in 
its  bearing  on  the  future  of  that  great  unclaimed  region  then 
known  as  Oregon,  it  stands  on  an  equal  footing.  It  was  also 
the  third  traverse  of  the  North  American  continent  above 
Mexico;  and  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  Oregon  Trail. 

Keeping  down  the  north  bank  they  began  to  hear  news  of 
the  Astoria  establishment,  and  then  of  the  loss  of  the  Tonquin. 
The  people  by  the  way  were  well  posted  on  these  matters, 
although  they  had  no  newspaper.  Purchasing  canoes,  the 
Hunt  party  ran  down  on  the  current,  and  on  February  15, 
181 2,  they  came  in  sight  of  Astoria,  the  goal  they  had  so  long 
and  so  strenuously  struggled  to  reach.  McKenzie  was  already 
there,  having  beaten  Hunt  by  a  full  month.  All  the  chief 
men  of  the  party,  except  Crooks,  were  now  once  more  together. 
It  therefore  seemed  that  the  Astoria  enterprise  was  about  to 
bloom  into  success,  but  more  trouble  was  in  store  for  it. 


'■} 


\ 


CHAPTER   XII 

Eastward  from  Astoria — The  War  of  1812  on  a  Business  Basis  in  Oregon — Astoria 
Becomes  Fort  George — The  Pacific  Fur  Company  Expires — Louisiana  De- 
limited at  Last — The  Expedition  of  Major  Long — A  Steamboat  on  the  Mis- 
souri— The  First  Man  on  Pike's  Peak — The  Elusive  Red  River  Refuses  to  be 
Explored — Closing  on  the  Inner  Wilderness — The  Spanish  Sentinel  Turns 
Mexican. 

THE  Astoria  establishment  was  now  in  good  order.  There 
seemed  to  be  no  reason  why  Astor's  project  at  last  should 
not  move  on  to  success.  Several  trading-posts  were  founded 
in  the  upper  Columbia  valley,  and  to  further  develop  the 
situation,  Hunt,  in  the  supply  ship  Beaver,  which  had  duly 
arrived  in  May,  181 2,  sailed  north  along  the  coast.  This  was 
in  accordance  with  another  part  of  the  plan  whereby  arrange- 
ments had  been  made  with  the  Russians  for  supplying  their 
North  American  trading  posts  with  merchandise  and  trans- 
porting their  peltry.  The  chief  of  the  Russian  company  was 
the  famous  Baranof,  a  man  of  domineering  power  and  iron 
purpose.  His  home  was  in  the  celebrated  Baranof  Castle,  at 
New  Archangel,  now  Sitka,  a  castle  that  saw  grog  flow  like 
water,  and  where  a  teetotaler  met  with  no  toleration.  The 
castle,  a  massive  log  structure,  was  accidentally  burned  only  a 
few  years  ago.  Hunt  withstood  as  well  as  he  could  the  power 
of  Baranof's  potations,  and  succeeded  in  adjusting  his  business 
satisfactorily. 

Before  he  left  Astoria,  he  sent  Robert  Stuart,  a  young 
Scotchman  of  integrity,  good  judgment,  and  sincere  devotion 
to  the  company,  back  overland  on  June  29th,  with  messages 

215 


2 1 6  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

for  Astor,  and  this  journey  deserves  more  space  than  it  is  pos- 
sible to  give  it  here,  for  Stuart  traversed  new  ground  a  part  of 
the  way,  and  so  may  be  recorded  among  the  first  Wilderness 
breakers.'  With  him  went  McClellan,  Ramsay  Crooks,  John 
Day,  Ben  Jones,  Andri  Vallar,  and  Francis  Le  Clerc.  Crooks 
and  John  Day,  after  having  reluctantly  been  left  behind  by 
Hunt,  had  finally  arrived  at  Astoria  in  a  desperate  condition, 
from  which  Crooks  recovered,  but  Day's  health  was  perma- 
nently destroyed  and,  his  mind  giving  way,  Stuart  was  obliged 
to  send  him  back  to  Astoria,  where  he  died  the  next  year. 
His  memory  endures  in  the  name  of  a  river  in  Idaho,  as  well 
as  in  his  connection  with  the  second  great  traverse  of  the 
continent  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States.  The  Stuart 
party  on  its  eastward  way  followed  the  Columbia  and  the 
Snake,  meeting  opposition  from  some  natives  and  assistance 
from  others.  They  also  encountered  near  the  head  of  the 
Snake  some  of  the  hunters  who  had  been  left  to  trap  and  trade. 
These  men  were  in  a  sorry  plight,  having  met  with  various 
disasters  and  also  with  robbery  at  the  hands  of  hostile  bands 
of  natives.  At  Caldron  Linn  they  found  that  six  of  the 
caches  had  been  robbed  by  natives  under  the  guidance  of  three 
voyageurs  of  the  Hunt  party  who  had  remained  behind  and 
finally  had  taken  up  their  residence  among  some  Shoshones. 
Fitting  out  several  of  the  men  from  the  three  remaining 
caches,  Stuart  left  them  to  once  more  try  their  fortunes,  and 
directed  his  course  on  to  the  East.  After  a  good  deal  of  diffi- 
culty, the  17th  of  October  found  him  crossing  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  Green.  Food  was  limited,  and  finding  no 
buffalo  here  the  men  were  at  the  last  notch.  Francis  Le  Clerc 
insisted  that  lots  should  be  cast,  as  it  was  better  for  one  to  die 
than  for  all,  but  Stuart  threatened  to  shoot  him  on  the  spot 
for  the  suggestion.  Food  was  soon  after  obtained  and  the 
party  saved  from  extinction. 

Crossing  over  to  the  head  of  the  North  Platte,  which  they 
did  not  know  at  the  time,  they  descended  its  wide  valley  for 

'  Recently  a  manuscript  diary  of  Robert  Stuart's  was  discovered,  and  a  type- 
written copy  of  it  has  been  added  to  the  New  York  Public  Library. 


i   2i8  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

a  long  distance,  and  then  made  a  permanent  camp  for  the 
winter,  November  2d,  where  there  was  abundant  game.  A 
visit  from  a  war  party  of  Arapahos  caused  them  to  abandon 
the  place  and  seek  another,  where  the  remainder  of  the  winter 
was  passed  comfortably  without  interruption,  and  in  the  early 
spring  they  continued  down  the  Platte,  meeting  in  April  with 
an  Otoe  who  told  them  of  the  war  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  Within  a  few  miles  of  the  Missouri  they 
bought  a  canoe  from  a  trader  and  then  sailed  down,  arriving 
at  St.  Louis  April  30th,  181 3,  ten  months  after  their  departure 
from  Astoria.  Their  horses  had  all  been  stolen  on  the  way  by 
the  natives,  which  not  only  caused  delay,  but  deprived  them 
of  a  permanent  food  supply,  and  was  one  cause  of  their  descent 
to  the  brink  of  collapse. 

As  soon  as  the  news  of  the  war  reached  the  North-west 
Company,  orders  were  issued  for  a  party  to  proceed  to  Astoria 
to  oust  the  Americans.  This  detachment  under  McTavish  and 
La  Roque  reached  the  place  in  a  famishing  condition,  but  as 
McDougall,  one  of  their  countrymen,  was  in  charge.  Hunt 
being  absent,  they  were  cordially  received.  For  various  rea- 
sons Hunt's  return  was  delayed,  the  next  annual  supply  ship, 
the  Lark,  failed  to  come,  having  been  wrecked  on  the  way, 
and  altogether  the  project  was  again  deeply  overshadowed. 
McDougall  negotiated  a  sale  with  the  North-west  representa- 
tives, and  when  the  British  man-of-war  Raccoon,  on  December 
I,  181 3,  arrived  to  capture  the  American  post,  all  the  disgusted 
captain  could  do  was  to  substitute  the  British  for  the  American 
flag,  as,  of  course,  he  had  no  power  to  molest  property  of  the 
North-west  Company.  He  re-named  the  place  Fort  George, 
and  sailed  away,  without  the  rich  prize  money  he  had  antici- 
pated. When  Hunt,  who  had  been  back  and  again  gone  off 
to  secure  a  ship  for  the  removal  of  his  company's  property, 
once  more  arrived  on  February  28,  18 14,  he  found  the  place 
a  North-west  Company  post  with  McDougall  in  charge.  He 
accepted  drafts  on  Montreal  for  the  settlement  of  the  account 
of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  and  this  part  of  the  War  of  1812 
was  thus  a  purely  business  transaction.  It  would  be  cheaper 
if  all  wars  could  be  settled  on  the  same  basis. 


Differences  219 

McDougall  has  been  roundly  denounced  for  selling  out  in 
this  manner.  Astor  himself  considered  it  disgraceful.  But  it 
is  probable  that  in  the  end,  this  procedure  was  the  best,  and 
there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  McDougall  acted  in  bad  faith. 
The  Astoria  enterprise  was  ended.  It  had  been  well  planned, 
but  circumstances  were  against  it.  It  did  not  expire  in  a  blaze 
of  glory  to  make  the  close  romantic,  but  merged  into  the 
North-west  Company  as  one  day  melts  into  another,  and  for 
years  thereafter  this  company  was  the  dominant  power  of  the 
whole  region.  But  while  the  scheme  as  a  fur-trading  venture 
had  failed,  as  a  part  of  the  history  of  breaking  the  Wilderness 
it  takes  a  front  place.  Had  those  in  authority  then  fully  ap- 
preciated the  importance  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Pacific  Fur 
Company  to  the  future  of  the  United  States,  they  would  have 
bent  their  energies  to  its  successful  promotion  instead  of  tak- 
ing but  a  languid  interest.  Nevertheless  the  bearing  of  the 
disastrous  operations  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company  on  the 
boundary  of  Louisiana  and  the  claims  of  the  United  States  in 
the  Oregon  country  was  of  the  first  importance. 

When  the  treaty  concluding  the  war  was  signed,  December 
24,  1 8 14,  it  stipulated  that  all  territory  and  all  places  taken 
from  either  party,  with  a  few  exceptions,  were  to  be  restored, 
and  on  this  basis,  though  the  Oregon  country  was  not  men- 
tioned, the  United  States  claimed  Astoria.  But  the  British, 
while  finally  agreeing  to  yield  the  post,  although  they  claimed 
it  had  never  been  booty  of  war,  refused  to  allow  any  right  of 
possession  of  the  region  to  go  with  it,  asserting  that  Astoria 
had  merely  been  established  in  British  territory.  Captain  Bid- 
die  in  the  United  States  ship  Ontario  took  formal  possession 
August  9,  1818,  and  somewhat  later  J.  B  Prcvost  went  there 
on  the  British  ship  Blossom  and  received  the  actual  transfer  as 
agent  for  the  United  States.  Great  Britain  was  firm  in  its 
claim  for  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  and  as  no  settlement 
could  be  reached  it  was  agreed,  October  20,  1818,  that  for  a 
period  of  ten  years  the  whole  region  eastward  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  should  remain  free  and  open  to  both  nations.  East 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  forty-ninth  parallel  was  at  the 
same  time  adopted    as  the  division  between    Louisiana   and 


•   220 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


British  territory,  an  adjustment  which  had  nearly  been  arrived 
at  eleven  years  earlier. 

The  Spaniards   now  once  more  came  forward   with  their 
claim  to  all  Pacific  territory  up  to  the  fifty-fifth  degree,  while 

Russia  demanded 
everything  down  to  the 
fifty-first.  The  United 
States  yielded  nothing 
in  this  direction,  and, 
still  claiming  Texas  to 
the  Rio  Grande  as  a 
part  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  was  finally 
able,  in  Pebruary,  1819, 
to  negotiate  a  treaty 
with  Spain  whereby 
that  country  ceded, 
Florida  and  its  rights 
north  of  latitude  forty- 
two,  in  the  Oregon  re- 
gion, for  the  claims  of 
the  United  States  'to 
Texas.  Spain  desired 
to  extend  its  boundary 
to  the  Mississippi,  but 
in  this  did  not  succeed. 
The  line  between  all 
Spanish  territory  and 
Louisiana  was  also 
definitely  fixed,  and  the 
Louisiana  Purchase 
now  had  limits  for  the 
first  time,  except  on  the  west  between  the  forty-second  paral- 
lel and  the  forty-ninth,  and  no  line  could  be  drawn  here  till 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  settled  their  difference 
over  the  Oregon  region.  These  various  agreements  delimited 
Louisiana  as  it  is  usually  given  on  maps,  except  north  from 
the  forty-second  parallel,  where  there  never  was  a  boundary. 


An  Arizona  Thistle. 

Photograph  by  F.  8.  Dellenbaugh. 


Death  of  Lisa  221 

except  that  the  Rocky  Mountains  were  temporarily  recognised 
as  the  eastern  limit  of  the  disputed  region.  The  lines  of 
Louisiana  on  the  west  followed  the  Sabine  River  to  latitude 
thirty-two,  thence  north  to  Red  River  and  west  along  it  to 
the  one  hundredth  meridian,  thence  north  on  this  to  the  Ar- 
kansas, and  west  on  the  Arkansas  to  its  source,  thence  due 
north  to  the  forty-second  parallel.  See  map  on  page  154, 
in  which  the  dotted  part  shows  the  original  state  of  the  claims. 
All  north  of  the  forty-second  parallel  claimed  by  Spain  fell  to 
the  United  States.  These  claims  in  themselves  were  not  very 
strong,  except  as  to  original  discovery  on  the  coast,  but,  united 
to  those  acquired  from  France,  from  Gray's  discovery,  from 
Lewis  and  Clark's  exploration,  from  the  Astoria  establishment 
and  its  subsidiary  posts,  and  from  the  journey  of  Wilson  Price 
Hunt,  they  presented  a  better  title  to  the  region  than  any 
other  nation  could  show. 

Pike  had  reported  the  country  he  traversed  to  be  no  more 
than  a  barren  desert,  and  it  was  his  opinion  that  it  would  be  a 
permanent  and  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  western  movement 
of  the  Americans.  This  discouraging  view,  together  with  the 
War  of  1812,  retarded  for  several  years  operations  in  the  Wilder- 
ness on  the  part  of  Americans.  The  British  companies,  how- 
ever, were  constantly  active,  the  North-west  holding  all  the 
country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  a  large  part  east 
of  them.  Trappers  operated  along  the  Missouri  and  its  tribu- 
taries, some  few  entered  the  mountains,  and  the  energetic  Lisa 
was  particularly  active  in  pushing  his  trade.  In  181 3  he  was 
made  sub-agent  for  all  tribes  on  the  Missouri  above  the  Kansas 
River,  with  instructions  to  prevent  them  from  going  over  to 
the  British.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  useful  man  in  many 
ways,  and  Brackenridge,  who  was  with  him  for  a  considerable 
time,  has  given  a  glowing  picture  of  his  enterprise  and  bold 
energy.  He  made  his  last  voyage  in  1820,  and  died  August 
I2th  within  the  limits  of  the  present  St.  Louis. 

In  order  to  gain  further  knowledge  of  the  vast  western 
possessions,  another  expedition  was  sent  out  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  1819  under  Major  Long,  to  go  to  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains by  way  of  the  Platte  and  return  by  Red  River.     This 


222  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

party  left  St.  Louis  on  June  2rst,  with  the  advantage  of  a 
steamboat/  Fulton's  experiments  having  achieved  success  in 
1807,  steam  propulsion  had  been  extensively  introduced  for 
river  navigation  and  had  brought  a  great  change  in  transporta- 
tion facilities.  Long's  steamer,  the  Western  Engineer,  proved 
to  be  even  better  than  was  expected,  and  they  made  their  way 
up  the  Missouri  easily  against  the  strong  current,  where  by 
the  old  method  of  towing  the  keel  boats,  enormous  labour  was 
involved.  It  was  also  a  source  of  great  interest  to  the  natives. 
The  region  was  rapidly  settling  along  the  Missouri  east  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Kansas  so  that  supplies  were  there  much  easier 
to  obtain  than  formerly,  and  altogether  the  new  order  of  things 
made  progress  for  Major  Long  quicker  than  that  of  any  of  his 
predecessors.  By  September  17th,  he  had  arrived  at  Fort  Lisa 
and  went  into  winter  quarters  near  Council  Bluffs,  naming  the 
place  Engineer  Cantonment.  Long,  himself,  went  East  again 
from  here  by  way  of  St.  Louis,  returning  on  the  28th  of  May, 
1820.  Lieutenant  Graham  then  took  the  steamboat  back,  while 
Long  mounted  his  party  on  horses  for  the  trip  across  the 
plains.  There  were  twenty-eight  horses  and  mules,  one  for 
each  man,  and  eight  for  carrying  packs.  The  absurdity  of 
having  only  eight  pack  animals  for  a  party  of  twenty  men 
starting  on  a  long  exploring  tour  far  from  any  base  of  supplies, 
seems  not  to  have  struck  any  of  the  party,  not  even  Major 
Long.  It  was  the  same  old  story  over  again,  inadequate 
preparation,  a  story,  too,  that  was  often  to  be  repeated  in  the 
future.  For  such  a  party  there  should  have  been  no  fewer 
than  twenty  pack  animals,  and  thirty  would  have  been  nearer 
the  right  number.  The  list  of  supplies  was  equally  absurd. 
There  was  no  flour,  and  only  five  hundred  pounds  of  biscuit, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  pork,  and  three  bushels  of 
parched  cornmeal,  twenty-five  pounds  of  coffee,  and  thirty  of 
sugar. 

They  left  Engineer  Cantonment   on   June  6,    1820.     The 
chief  members  of  the  party  were,  besides  Major  Long,  Captain 

^  Account  of  an  Expedition  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  i8ig- 
2o,  compiled  by  Edwin  James  from  the  notes  of  Major  Long,  Mr.  Say,  and  other 
gentlemen  of  the  party. 


Long's  Peak 


223 


J.  R.  Bell,  T.  Say,  and  Dr.  Edwin  James,*  the  last  afterwards 
writing  the  account  of  the  journey  from  the  note-books  of  the 
leading  members,  and  at  one  place  mentioning  the  inadequate 
outfit.  They  were  well  received  at  a  village  of  the  Pawnees, 
and  the  chief  said,  "You  must  have  long  hearts  to  undertake 
such  a  journey  with  so  weak  a  force,  hearts  that  would  reach 
from  the  earth  to  the  heavens."  He  urged  them  not  to  go 
on,   but  of  course  no  heed  was  paid  to   this.     They  passed 


A  Full  Larder ; 

From  Wonderland,  1904— Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


other  Pawnee  villages  along  the  Platte,  and  went  up  the  Loup 
Fork,  to  the  Grand  Pawnee  village,  then  across  from  the  Loup 
Fork  to  the  main  Platte  again,  and  followed  that  stream  up  to 
the  junction  of  its  two  great  branches.  Here  they  chose  the 
south  branch,  and  on  the  30th  of  June  had  their  first  glimpse 
of  the  mountains  lying  like  clouds  on  the  horizon  and  grad- 
ually developing  till  their  snowy  summits  were  plainly  seen, 
especially  a  prominent  peak  since  named  after  Long.     This 

'  James  took  the  place  of  Dr.  Baldwin,  who  had  become  ill  and  remained  behind 
at  the  village  of  Franklin,  where  he  died  on  August  31,  1819.  Dr.  James  came 
out  in  the  spring  of  1820  with  Major  Long. 


•  224  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

first  view  of  the  great  range  is  alwatys  thrilling,  and  as  one 
sights  the  heavy  masses  lying  so  mysteriously  soft  in  the  clear 
light,  he  remembers  the  exclamation  of  the  good  bishop,  who 
as  he  stepped  in  this  region  off  a  railway  train,  deeply  breathed 
the  sparkling  air  and  fervently  cried,  "Well !  I  have  never  been 
out-of-doors  before!  " 

They  had  expected  to  celebrate  the  Fourth  of  July  on  some 
cool  summit,  but  on  that  day  the  peaks  were  still  far  distant 
and  they  were  forced  to  content  themselves  with  an  extra  pint 
of  maize  and  a  small  portion  of  whiskey,  on  the  common  plain. 
Provisions  were  alternately  scarce  and  plenty  according  to 
locality  and  the  success  of  the  hunters;  sometimes  buffalo 
hump-ribs,  tongues,  and  marrow  bones  were  abundant;  again 
there  was  starvation  diet.  At  last,  on  the  loth,  they  were 
before  the  great  Backbone,  with  Pike's  "highest  peak"  in  full 
view  from  a  hill.  On  the  12th  they  camped  on  the  Fontaine 
qui  Bouille  near  the  present  site  of  Colorado  City,  and  Dr. 
James,  with  four  men  started  out  to  climb  the  great  peak. 
Two  of  the  men  were  left  at  the  base  to  care  for  the  horses, 
while  the  others  went  on.  About  noon  they  came  to  the 
Boiling  Spring,  the  present  well-known  soda  spring  of  Manitou, 
which  gives  name  to  the  stream  of  which  it  forms  a  source.' 
This  beautiful  spring  was  of  great  interest  to  James  and  they 
had  their  lunch  beside  it.  Through  its  crystal  waters  could  be 
seen  on  the  bottom  the  offerings  of  beads  and  trinkets  by  the 
Amerinds. 

Before  this  no  attempt  to  climb  the  mountain  had  ever 
been  successful,  but  as  in  many  other  similar  matters,  no  serious 
effort  seems  ever  before  to  have  been  made.  The  night  of  the 
13th,  James  and  his  two  companions  spent  in  a  most  uncom- 
fortable place,  and  on  the  next  morning  started  early  with 
the  hope  of  making  the  round  journey  before  dark.  About 
noon,  timber  line,  11,720  feet,  was  reached,  and  by  four 
o'clock  they  stood  on  the  mighty  summit,  14,108  feet  above 

^  Dr.  Coues  states  in  his  Pikes  Jotirnal  that  the  proper  name  for  this  stream, 
as  applied  by  Fremont,  is  Fontaine  qui  Bouit,  but  as  it  was  named  before  Fre- 
mont's time  from  the  celebrated  "boiling"  springs,  Dr.  Coues's  statement  is  an 
error. 


James'  Peak  Pike's  225 

the  sea,  and  8o(X)  above  the  plains,  and  could  see  on  the 
east  the  prairie  ocean  melting  into  the  limitless  distance, 
while  on  the  other  hand  spread  away  a  broad  chaos  of 
peaks,  canyons,  valleys,  fading  into  the  depths  of  the  un- 
known Wilderness.  Vast  clouds  of  grasshoppers  were  flying 
over  the  peak,  sometimes  so  dense  as  almost  to  obscure  the 
light.  After  about  half  an  hour  on  the  majestic  summit,  now 
reached  by  a  prosaic  railway,  the  descent  began.  Losing  their 
course,  they  failed  to  reach  the  camp  of  the  previous  night, 
and  were  forced  to  sleep  out  with  no  food  or  shelter  or  com- 
fort of  any  kind  ;  not  after  all  so  awful  as  it  sounds.  As  soon 
as  light  came  in  the  morning  they  continued,  and  reached  their 
camp  only  to  find  it  ablaze;  the  fire  had  spread  and  consumed 
everything  except  a  few  scraps  of  food,  on  which  the}^  greedily 
breakfasted.  A  heavy  bison  and  Amerind  trail  passed  the 
Boiling  Spring  going  into  the  mountains.  This  is  now  a  road 
to  South  Park. 

Long  rightly  named  this  peak  after  James,  and  it  should 
have  retained  the  name  of  the  man  first  to  surmount  it,  but 
geographical  names  are  sometimes  singularly  acquired,  and  so 
the  peak  which  Pike  saw  from  some  miles  away,  and  was  not 
the  first  to  see,  received  his  name  without  his  intention,  or  that 
of  any  one  else.  Indeed,  no  one  can  tell  just  how  it  came  to 
be  called  after  Pike,  except  that  it  simply  grew ;  and  Fremont 
finally  put  it  on  record. 

Leaving  Boiling  Spring  Creek,  as  the  Long  party  called  it, 
translating  the  original  French  name,  they  struck  south-west 
on  July  i6th,  to  the  "Arkansa,"  thus  properly  pronouncing 
(Arkansaw),  and  also  correctly  writing  it.  The  river  takes  its 
name  from  the  Arkansa  tribe,  and  how  it  came  to  be  desig- 
nated by  the  plural  is  another  of  the  curiosities  of  geographic 
nomenclature.  They  looked  for  Pike's  "blockhouse,"  but 
could  not  find  a  trace  of  anything  resembling  work  of  white 
men,  which  is  not  strange  when  we  remember  that  what  Pike 
built  on  or  near  the  site  of  Pueblo,  was  an  extremely  rude 
affair  and  not  a  house  at  all.  Some  of  the  Long  party  went 
up  the  river  to  the  deep  canyon  by  which  it  cuts  a  passage 
through   the   mountains,   where  Pike  had   already  been,  and 


•   2  26  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

where  to-day  the  railway  follows  the  torrent  out  of  the  tangled 
rock  masses  to  the  plain. 

On  July  19th  they  turned  east  down  the  Arkansas.  Two 
parties  were  then  formed.  One  under  Bell  was  to  explore  the 
Arkansas  to  Fort  Smith,  and  there  await  the  others,  who 
under  Long's  own  command  were  to  travel  south  in  search  of 
the  sources  of  Red  River,  with  the  intention  of  descending 
that  stream.  Their  guide  all  the  time  had  been  Joseph  Bijeau, 
who  knew  the  country  between  the  Arkansas  and  the  Platte 
perfectly,  but  that  below  the  Arkansas  he  was  not  familiar 
with.  He  had  often  been  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  for  some 
distance  and  gave  a  description  of  the  region,  so  far  as  he  knew 
it,  which  was  correct. 

On  the  24th  of  July  the  parties  separated.  The  ther- 
mometer stood  at  100"  in  the  shade,  when  there  was  any,  and 
the  water  being  either  bad  or  lacking  entirely,  the  journey 
south  from  the  Arkansas  was  not  exhilarating.  Wood  was  also 
scarce  or  absent,  and  fires  had  to  be  made  of  "buffalo  chips." 
They  then  followed  up  the  Purgatoire  and  finally  passed  to  the 
head  of  another  stream  which  they  concluded  must  be  Red 
River.  They  crossed  more  than  twenty  well-beaten  parallel 
trails,  and  though  they  did  not  know  it  then,  they  were  within 
a  few  miles  of  the  Metropolis  of  the  Far  Wilderness,  Santa 
Fe,  and  could  easily  have  gone  there  by  this  road,  had  they 
so  desired.  There  was  suffering  for  food,  but  from  time  to 
time  this  was  relieved  by  the  killing  of  a  wild  horse,  a  buffalo, 
or  some  other  game.  On  August  9th  they  met  a  large  band 
of  ''  Kaskaias,"  who,  while  not  exactly  hostile,  were  not  hos- 
pitable, and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  any  food  was  obtained 
from  them.  Water  they  carried  in  paunches  of  bison,  and  in 
camp  hung  them  on  tripods.  Long  did  not  discover  from 
these  people,  strangely  enough,  that  the  river  he  was  follow- 
ing was  not  Red  River,  as  he  supposed,  but  the  Canadian, 
and  it  was  not  till  they  had  consumed  seven  weeks  and 
travelled  down  the  valley  of  the  stream  796  miles,  that  on 
September  loth  they  came  to  the  Arkansas  and  learned  their 
error.  Two  days  later  they  met  a  trader,  Robert  Glen,  the 
first  white  man  seen  since  the  6th  of  the  preceding  June.     He 


Elusive  Red  River 


227 


gave  them  coffee,  biscuit,  and  some  other  supplies,  and  told  of 
the  safe  arrival  at  Fort  Smith  of  the  other  division  of  the  ex- 
pedition. Fort  Smith,  which  they  soon  reached,  was  on  the 
Arkansas  just  below  the  Poteau,  and  had  been  established  b}^ 
Major  Long  in  1817. 
He  was  now  again 
on  familiar  ground, 
and  nothing  of  note 
remains  to  be  men- 
tioned concerning  his 
expedition. 

Red  River  seemed 
to  evade  the  Ameri- 
can explorer.  Pike 
had  failed  to  find  it ; 
Long  now  had  a 
similar  disappoint- 
ment, due  to  the 
same  cause  as  Pike's, 
neglect  to  recon- 
noitre properly  be- 
fore proceeding;  and 
in  1 806  Captain 
Sparks,  attempting 
to  explore  westward 
from  its  mouth,  met 
with  a  greatly  supe- 
rior Spanish  force 
and  was  compelled 
to  retire. 

From  the  Arkan- 
sas to  the  northern 

border  of  the  United  States  the  country  was  now  fairly  un- 
derstood, the  Columbia  was  no  longer  a  mystery,  Garces  and 
other  Spaniards  had  traversed  Arizona,  New  Mexico  had  long 
been  flourishing,  the  California  Missions  were  quietly  growing 
rich,  and  the  unbroken  Wilderness  was  narrowing  approxi- 
mately   to    the   region    between    the    thirty-sixth    and    the 


standing  Rocks,  Common  in  the  Wilderness . 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


•  228  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

forty-second  parallels  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Not  that  all  outside  of  these  bounds  was  well 
known,  for  it  was  far  from  it,  but  it  could  no  longer  be  re- 
garded as  Wilderness  absolute,  while  the  area  above  outlined, 
except  for  the  entrada  of  Escalante,  was  a  blank.  It  was  all 
the  property  of  Spain,  hence  Americans  had  no  right  to 
enter,  but  when  the  War  of  1812  was  well  disposed  of 
hunters  began  again  to  pour  into  the  Wilderness,  and  Long's 
expedition  seemed  to  mark  the  beginning  of  another  im- 
portant attack  upon  the  mountain  fastnesses,  where  the 
beaver  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  were  enjoying  a 
busy  life  and  holding  forth  unwittingly  an  alluring  bait  that 
was  now  to  induce  a  great  invasion  of  Spanish  territory 
notwithstanding  the  challenge  of  the  sentinel.  Spain's  hold, 
too,  on  her  Mexican  possessions  was  loosening.  Iturbide 
in  1821  proclaimed  Mexican  independence,  and  the  next  year 
Santa  Afia  unfurled  the  flag  of  the  Republic.  For  some  time 
Mexico  had  her  full  attention  occupied  with  internal  affairs. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

The  Wilderness  Breaker — Lisa  Closes  his  Account — General  Ashley  Takes  a  Hand 
— The  Religious  Jedediah — Green  River  Valley — What  a  White  Bear  could 
Do — Ashley  Navigates  Red  Canyon  of  Green  River — Discovery  of  Salt  Lake 
— Ashley  Retires  Rich — The  Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company — Sylvester  and 
James  O.  Pattie — Pattie's  Journey  in  the  Valley  of  the  Colorado — The  Great 
Circuit  of  Jedediah  Smith. 

AS  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  came  in,  the 
trappers  and  traders  began  more  than  ever  to  long  for 
the  conquest  of  the  great  mountain  Wilderness,  whose  solemn 
front,  ending  the  wide  rolling  plain,  reared  its  craggy  barriers 
with  soothing  outlines  tantalisingly  suggestive  of  wealth  and 
wonder  easily  accessible  behind.  The  hardships  of  the  ex- 
plorers to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  passed  unheeded,  for 
the  men  who  now  came  to  match  nerve  and  muscle  against 
the  entrenched  mystery  were  in  their  natural  element  when 
battling  with  danger  and  difficulty  in  the  uplifting  air,  and, 
like  the  eagle  sailing  high,  were  never  more  at  home  than 
when  pushing  their  daring  tread  into  some  virgin  valley,  where 
falling  waters  broke  the  calm  and  fostered  multitudes  of 
beaver,  where  game  bounded  from  every  nook  and  glade, 
and  the  rich  bunch-grass  fattened  their  patient  horses.  Here 
with  traps,  a  good  rifle,  and  plenty  of  ammunition,  notwith- 
standing encounters  with  the  native  striving  to  preserve  his 
happy  hunting-grounds,  their  lives  were  full  of  pleasure  and 
that  resolute  and  healthy  vigour  which  comes  to  the  intelligent 
man  alert  to  protect  life  and  limb.  They  appeared  to  have 
been  born  for  this  particular  operation  of  breaking  the  final 
strongholds  of  the  Wilderness. 

22q 


I30 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


The  whole  western  region,  being  at  a  greater  elevation  than 
two  thousand  feet,  the  air  is  extremely  invigorating.  This  de- 
sirable quality,  with  the  absence  of  continuous  rains  from  the 
larger  part,  renders  it  an  ideal  country  for  living  in  the  open. 
Even  in  dead  of  winter  the  dry  air  causes  the  cold  to  be  more 
easily  borne  than  the  same  degree  in  moister  regions.  Those 
who  have  never  tried  it  can  hardly  appreciate  the  pleasure  of 


In  the  Mountain  Wilderness — Vulture  Peak. 
Photograph  by  R.  H.  Chapman,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


winter  living  out-of-doors;  nor  can  they  realise  the  alluring 
interest  of  unknown  country,  where  now  and  then  from  some 
splendid  height  the  wide  encircling  problem  is  viewed  for 
leagues,  or  till  merged  in  the  haze  of  distant  sky.  Perchance 
a  film  of  smoke  steals  up  from  some  blue,  deep  glen  to  mark 
the  presence  of  dwellers  in  the  wilds.  Toward  evening  the 
night  mists  draw  earth  and  sky  together,  and  the  mountain 
billows  seem  interminable  and  impossible.  Another  sun  lights 
the  mystery,  and  the  stranger  gropes  on  expecting  surprises  at 
every  step. 


The  Trapper 


231 


The  extreme  hardship  that  sometimes  was  endured  was 
frequently  due  to  wrong  decisions  or  inadequate  outfit;  or 
from  going  ahead  too  fast.  The  born  mountaineer  and  ex- 
plorer, however,  meets  with  few  setbacks  because  he  does  not 
know  a  setback  when  he  sees  it.  He' fits  into  the  Wilderness 
without  effort,  and  drifts  across  it  as  summer  clouds  cleave  a 
tranquil  sky.  Many  of  the  American  trappers  of  this  period 
had  been  reared  to  life  in  the  woods  of  the  East ;  the  rifle  was 
their  childhood's  toy.     Through  sheer  love  of  adventure  they 


Before  Sunrise. 

From  Wonderland,  1904,   Northern   Pacific  Railway. 

were  impelled  to  the  wider  Wilderness,  and  quickly  adjusted 
themselves  to  new  conditions.  They  could  have  been  any- 
where readily  distinguished.  With  compact  muscles  and  solid 
frame,  partners  of  fresh  air,  exercise,  and  simple  fare,  they  had 
a  clear,  wide  gaze,  flinching  before  neither  man  nor  beast;  and 
unfailing  nerve  that  often  whipped  prospective  disaster  to 
success. 

The  routine  of  the  frontier  and  especially  of  the  deeper 
Wilderness  precluded  any  great  lapse  from  physical  excellence. 
When  a  man  was  alive  he  was  generally  well.  Indeed,  the 
average  American  trapper  had  a  constitution  that  seemed  in- 
vincible. Besides  this  his  moral  fibre  was  usually  excellent. 
His  word  was  good,  his  dealings  with  his  fellows  honourable. 


i  232  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Money  he  cared  less  for  than  freedom.  Cheerfully  he  risked 
his  life  for  another.  The  code  of  law  was  unwritten,  but  it 
was  well  understood;  punishment  for  serious  offences  was 
swift  and  certain.  Crimes  against  white  men  were  proportion- 
ately less  than  in  a  modern  city ;  but  when  it  came  to  dealings 
and  intercourse  with  the  Amerind  conscience  was  paralysed. 
They  also  rated  his  blood  at  about  the  price  of  water,  and  out 
of  this,  for  them  and  for  the  nation,  came  deep  and  lasting 
trouble.  But,  on  the  whole,  they  were  a  class  to  be  much 
admired;  some  of  their  names,  like  Bridger  and  Kit  Carson, 
are  imperishably  woven  into  history  and  literature;  others, 
like  Jedediah  Smith,  are  to  the  general  reader  unknown. 

This  period  opens  with  the  death  of  the  dominant  figure  of 
the  Missouri  River  trade  from  the  beginning  of  the  century, 
especially  from  the  date  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  Manuel 
Lisa,  who  made  his  last  voyage  in  1820  and  then  closed  the 
epoch,  and  his  own  earthly  account,  forever.  He  may  have 
had  all  the  faults  charged  against  him,  but  nevertheless  he 
seems  not  to  have  committed  any  grave  offence,  and  he  pos- 
sessed commanding  ability,  so  that  his  life  appears  to  balance 
well.  In  a  letter  to  General  Clark,  Superintendent  of  the 
Western  Tribes,  resigning  the  position  of  sub-agent,  which  he 
had  held  for  three  years — 1814  to  18 17, — he  explains  his  influ- 
ence over  the  natives  by  his  fair  dealing  and  by  his  kindness  to 
them.  He  gave  them  pumpkin,  potato,  and  other  seed  ;  his 
blacksmiths  worked  for  them  without  charge;  he  lent  them 
traps,  and  his  forts  were  the  refuge  of  the  old  and  feeble. 
He  was  the  most  active  man  of  his  period.  But  the  be- 
ginning of  this  decade  saw  another  active  man  come  to  the 
top,  the  man  who  started  the  actual  breaking  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Wilderness,  and  who,  with  his  employees  and  the 
"free"  trappers  and  freebooters  who  followed  their  lead,  soon 
penetrated  the  secret  places  of  Mexican  territory.  This  was 
William  H.  Ashley,  a  brigadier-general  of  militia  in  Missouri, 
the  first  lieutenant-governor,  and  later  twice  a  member  of 
Congress  from  the  newly  created  State.  He  was  a  Virginian 
who  came  to  St.  Louis  in  1802,  the  year  before  the  transfer  of 
Louisiana.      He  was  then  twenty-four,  a  man  of  education, 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


General  Ashley 


233 


of  great  executive  ability,  and  of  unfaltering  courage.  He 
was  forty-eight  when  the  third  decade  of  the  century  opened, 
with  which  his  name  is  so  closely  associated  that  it  might 
almost  be  called  the  Ashley  decade.  Not  that  he  was  the  first  to 
cross  the  mountain  barrier  into  Mexican  territory,  for  Etienne 
Provost  (Provo)  had  gone  to  Salt  Lake  in  the  very  first  year, 
and  there  were  others,  of  whom  little  or  no  record  is  preserved. 


Green  River  Valley. 

Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage. 


Samuel  Adams  Ruddock,  in  1821,  went  from  Council  Bluffs 
to  Santa  Fe  and  thence  north,  apparently  about  on  the  line 
of  Escalante's  old  trail,  to  Salt  Lake  valley,  performing  a 
memorable  journey,  but  Ashley  was  the  master  organiser  who 
dealt  the  obstinate  Wilderness  its  death-blow,  battering  a  per- 
manent breach  that  was  quickly  widened.  In  1822  he  built  a 
fort  on  the  Yellowstone.  With  twenty-eight  men,  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  started  to  make  his  first  attack  on  the  frontal 


•  234  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

mountains.  The  Arikaras  by  this  time  had  more  than  ever 
determined  to  obstruct  the  entrance  of  the  whites  into  their 
territory  and  sharply  repelled  the  company,  killing  fourteen 
of  the  party  and  wounding  ten.  Such  an  overwhelming  de- 
feat would  have  completely  vanquished  many  leaders,  but 
Ashley,  who  had  a  large  investment  in  this  venture,  did  not 
falter,  and  next  year,  1824,  when  the  time  came  to  move  on 
he  was  ready,  and  they  marched  to  success. 

With  him  were  a  number  of  men  soon  to  become  celebrated 
in  Wilderness  breaking,  among  them  Andrew  Henry,  who  had 
crossed  the  Continental  Divide  to  Snake  River  as  early  as  1809; 
Fitzpatrick,  William  Sublette,  Green,  after  whom  Green  River 
is  supposed  to  have  been  named;  J|m_Bridger,  then  a  youth 
of  nineteen ;  and  the  extremely  religious  as  well  as  unflinching 
trapper,  Jedediah  Smith,  one  of  the  boldest,  strongest,  most 
skilful,  and  altogether  admirable  characters  of  the  time,  a  verit- 
able knight  in  buckskin,  whose  career  was  a  continual  romance. 
Andrew  Henry,  who,  as  mentioned,  had  long  before  explored 
and  trapped  in  the  country,  in  connection  with  Lisa  and  the 
Missouri  Fur  Company,  at  the  time  when  he  established  the 
fort  on  the  head  of  Snake  River,  which  Wilson  Price  Hunt 
visited  and  temporarily  occupied,  had  then  discovered  South 
Pass,  a  discovery  which  has  been  erroneously  awarded  to 
others  of  a  later  time.  Of  course,  even  he  only  followed  an 
^  Amerind  trail.  Ashley  led  his  band  up  the  North  Platte,  about 
on  the  track  of  Robert  Stuart's  eastward  journey  from  Astoria 
of  181 2-1 3,  named  the  Sweetwater  Branch,  and  passed  over  to 
Green  River  Valley,  an  inviting  basin  surrounded  by  high 
mountains,  the  Wind  River  range  on  the  north,  and  on  the 
south  the  point  where  the  Green,  then  commonly  called  the 
Colorado,  Spanish  River,  or  the  Seedskedee,  enters  the  Uinta 
range  by  Flaming  Gorge,  the  first  of  the  thousand  miles  of 
canyons  now  celebrated,  which  enclose  the  river  and,  together 
with  the  rush  of  descending  waters,  make  travelling  by  it 
hazardous.  This  Green  River  Valley  was  adopted  as  the 
rendezvous — that  is,  the  point  where  all  the  trapping  parties, 
separating  to  pursue  the  hunt  for  rich  beaver  streams,  should 
again  meet  the  following  year  to  deliver  pelts  for  shipment  to 


Wilderness  Breakers  235 

St.  Louis.  The  locality  for  a  long  time  afterward  was  the 
central  meeting-place  for  mountain  men  and  was  known  far 
and  wide. 

Many  of  the  trappers  and  traders  of  the  early  days  wrote 
or  dictated  books,  and  there  is  consequently  a  large  amount 
of  literature  bearing  on  the  subject,  but  others,  like  Ashley, 
whose  story  would  to-day  be  invaluable,  apparently  recorded 
little.  Yet  some  journals  may  still  come  to  light,  for  it  was 
not  long  ago  that  Coues  discovered  and  printed  that  of  Jacob 
Fowler,  who,  in  1821-22,  went  across  to  Santa  Fe  in  company 
with  Hugh  Glenn.'  Fowler  and  Glenn  built  the  first  real 
house  on  or  near  the  site  of  Pueblo,  Colorado,  and  occupied 
it  for  about  a  month.  Then  they  went  on  to  Taos  and  Santa 
Fe.  Glenn  had  a  permit  from  the  Mexican  authorities  to  trap 
and  trade  in  their  territory.  The  route  was  over  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Pass  by  the  regular  trail,  for  many  years  travelled  by 
Spaniards,  who  inherited  it  from  the  natives.  It  passed  down 
to  Trinchera  Valley,  in  San  Luis  Park,  where  the  sketch  was 
made  which  forms  the  frontispiece  to  this  volume. 

Fowler  and  his  companions  met  with  difficulties  from  Span- 
iards, from  lack  of  food,  from  Amerinds,  and  from  bears.  The 
^' white  bear,"  or  grizzly,  at  that  time  was  numerous  every- 
where, and  the  guns  of  the  hunters  being  small-bore,  muzzle- 
loading  flint-locks,  they  were  of  small  service  in  a  battle  with 
one  of  these  impervious  monsters.  The  cry  of  "white  bear" 
was  almost  as  alarming  as  that  of  ' '  Indians. '  *  On  one  occasion 
a  bear  ran  for  shelter  into  a  dense  thicket  of  ten  or  twenty 
acres  near  camp,  where  Glenn  and  four  others  pursued  him.  As 
is  usual  with  them,  the  bear  kept  quiet  till  the  men  were  directly 
upon  him,  when  he  rose  and  attacked  Lewis  Dawson.  Glenn's 
gun  missed  fire,  but  a  dog  worrying  the  animal  Dawson  was 
able  to  get  away,  though  only  momentarily,  for  the  ponderous 
beast  was  again  quickly  upon  him.  Glenn's  gun  missed  a 
second  time.  Dawson  ran  up  a  tree,  but  the  bear  caught  him 
by  the  leg  and  pulled  him  down.  Meanwhile  Glenn,  in  another 
tree,  sharpened  his  gun  flint,  reprimed  his  piece,  and  put  a 
ball  into  the  enemy.     Several  others  now  coming  up  also  shot 

'  The  yournal  of  yacob  Fowler,  edited  by  Elliott  Coues,  with  notes. 


-2t^-*i.ji|^^^4i^*^-t^ .   j^^^i^S^^^ 


ijMj'' . 

B^^^H 

^^^  '^H 

^ I't.  wv  j.'.'^^^ff  i^rft^.'^dl^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 

Arrow  Weed  in  the  Yuma  Country. 

Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 


136 


The  White  Bear  237 

and  the  bear  was  killed.  But  Dawson  was  badly  hurt.  He 
was  helped  to  camp,  where,  in  Fowler's  own  words  and 
spelling, 

"  His  wounds  Ware  Examined — it  appears  His  Head  Was  In  the 
Bares  mouth  at  least  twice — and  that  when  the  monster  give  the 
Crush  that  Was  to  mash  the  mans  Head  it  being  two  large  for 
the  Span  of  His  Mouth  the  Head  Sliped  out  only  the  teeth  Cut- 
ting the  Skin  to  the  bone  Where  Ever  the  touched  it — so  that  the 
skin  of  the  Head  Was  Cut  from  about  the  Ears  to  the  top  in  Several 
derections — all  of  Which  Wounds  Ware  Sewed  up  as  Well  as  Cold  be 
don  by  men  In  our  Situation." 

Dawson  declared  he  had  heard  his  skull  break,  but  as  he 
was  cheerful  this  was  supposed  to  be  imagination,  yet  on  the 
second  day  he  grew  delirious,  and  then  a  hole,  supposed  be- 
fore to  be  slight,  was  found  to  be  so  deep  that  the  brain  was 
oozing  out.  The  man  died  on  the  third  day  and  was  buried, 
of  course,  on  the  spot.  They  were  all  sorry,  but  there  was 
no  time  for  lamentations,  nor  necessity  for  them.  The  bear 
was  skinned,  the  oil  tried  out,  Dawson's  effects  sold  to  his 
companions,  and  the  party  proceeded,  having  painted  another 
picture  of  the  risk  of  breaking  the  Wilderness  with  a  flint-lock 
gun.  The  disaster,  however,  like  many  another,  was  the  re- 
sult of  rashness, — in  this  case  the  plunging  into  a  thicket  where 
a  grizzly  lay  concealed. 

A  noted  trapper  and  scout,  belonging  to  what  may  be 
termed  the  freebooter  class,  of  which  Edward  Rose  was 
another  but  worse  example,  was  James  P.  Beckwourth,  who 
years  afterward,  1854-55,  dictated  a  somewhat  bombastic  but 
highly  interesting  story  of  his  adventures,  from  which  we  learn 
something  about  Ashley,  in  whose  employ  he  was  for  several 
years,'     Beckwourth  was  a  mulatto,  part  French,  and  Parkman 

^  The  Life  and  Adventures  of  yames  P.  Beckwourth,  written  from  his  own 
dictation  by  T.  D.  Bonner.  Chittenden  says  he  became  Beckivourth  only  when 
this  book  was  written — before  that  being  plain  Beck7aith,  but  men  are  often  called 
for  years  by  wrong  names,  and  Beckwourth  is  no  more  distinguished  than 
Beckwith. 


§  238  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

describes  him/  from  hearsay,  as  "a  ruffian  of  the  worst  stamp,, 
bloody  and  treacherous,  without  honour  or  honesty,"  a  rather 
extreme  and  apparently  unjust  description.  He  performed 
valuable  services  at  times,  and,  while  wild  and  reckless,  seems 
to  have  possessed  a  fair  amount  of  honour  and  honesty.  He 
knew  the  Amerinds  well,  particularly  the  Crows,  in  which 
nation  he  became  a  chief,  and  he  declares  the  natives  knew  that 
the  whites  cheated  them;  an  important  point  in  judging  the 
course  of  the  various  tribes.  He  was  young  when  he  first 
went  with  Ashley — twenty-six, — but  was  one  of  the  most 
active  men  in  the  party — at  least  from  his  own  story.  At  this 
time  Ashley's  main  camp  was  placed  at  or  near  the  lower  end 
of  Green  River  Valley,  and  the  General  determined,  1825,  to 
descend  the  river  through  the  canyon  to  search  for  fresh  beaver 
ground.  It  has  been  stated  that  he  intended  returning  to  St. 
Louis  by  this  route,  thinking  the  Colorado  (Green)  discharged 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  this  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that 
he  did  not  take  his  fur  packs  along.  He  was  merely  searching 
for  more  beaver.  The  boats  were  rude  affairs  made  of  buffalo 
hides  and  were  not  at  all  adequate  to  the  demands  of  the  fierce 
current,  which  carries  one  along  with  great  impetuosity.  Just 
below  the  camp  was  some  rapid  water  called  "Green  River 
Suck,"  and  this  was  probably  at  the  mouth  of  Henry's  Fork, 
where  the  river  first  breaks  into  the  rocks  of  the  Uinta  Mount- 
ains, extending  across  its  path,  forming  Flaming  Gorge  and 
other  canyons-  For  several  miles  below  this  the  canyons  are 
short  and  not  difficult  to  get  in  or  out  of,  then  Red  Canyon 
suddenly  closes  in  and  for  twenty-five  miles  the  bounding 
rocks  are  high,  steep,  red  sandstone,  reaching  at  the  highest 
twenty-five  hundred  feet  for  a  long  distance,  while  the  water  is 
torrential.  Ashley's  was  the  first  attempt  to  navigate  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Colorado,  a  reckless  procedure  with  such 
-^ boats,  for  they  had  no  idea  what  might  be  encountered.  The 
stream  falls  about  450  feet  before  emerging  into  Brown's  Park, 
or  "Hole,"  as  it  was  originally  named,  after  Brown,  a  trapper 

'^  Inman,  The  Santa  F^  Trail,  says  the  Bents,  Carson,  and  Maxwell,  whom 
he  knew,  spoke  well  of  Beckwourth.  He  also  says  his  honesty  was  unquestioned, 
and  that  he  was  a  born  leader. 


Descent  of  Red  Canyon 


239 


who  once  lived  there.  From  the  term  "Hole"  some  writers 
have  been  misled  into  supposing  that  this  is  a  very  dangerous 
part  of  the  river,  and  that  it  was  there  that  Ashley  met  his 
great  danger;  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  Hole  is  one  of  the  few 
openings,   or  wide  valleys,   on  the  Colorado,   and  the  river 


Red  Canyon  of  Green  River. 

Length  25  miles.     Walls  1800  to  2500  feet  high.      Average  width  of  water  250  feet. 
Ashley  was  the  first  white  man  to  pass  through  this  gorge. 


meanders  through  it  quite  tamely,  with  level  banks  and  Cot- 
tonwood groves.  Therefore  it  was  between  the  foot  of  Green 
River  Valley  and  this  Hole,  now  Brown's  Park,  that  Ashley 
lost  two  of  his  boats,  risked  his  life  in  the  rapids,  and  nearly 
starved  to  death.     Some  have  laid  his  trail  through  the  Can- 


•   240  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

yon  of  Lodore,  but  this  follows  Brown's  Park,  where  escape 
is  easy. 

The  men  grew  weak  and  disheartened,  and  after  six  days 
without  food  they  reached  the  limit  of  endurance.  They  pro- 
posed drawing  lots,  according  to  Beckwourth,  to  see  which  one 
should  die  to  create  food  for  the  others.  But  Ashley  implored 
them  to  postpone  this  hideous  alternative  at  least  another 
twenty-four  hours,  and  meanwhile  led  them  rapidly  forward  in 
the  hope  of  coming  to  the  end  of  the  gorge.  This  fortunately 
they  did,  and  came  out  into  Brown's  Hole  to  find  Provost 
camped  there  with  abundant  provisions  and  horses.  With 
him  they  went  across  the  mountains  to  Salt  Lake,  and  thence 
back  to  the  rendezvous. 

Owing  to  frequent  battles  between  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany and  the  North-west  Company,  both  of  which  operated 
mainly  north  of  the  42d  parallel  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  north  of  the  49th  east  of  them,  these  companies  in  1821 
were  merged  under  the  Hudson  Bay  title.  Astoria  had  been 
abandoned  and  their  chief  fort  in  the  Columbia  region  was  Van- 
couver, just  above  the  mouth  of  the  Willamet.  Their  trappers 
ranged  the  whole  northern  country,  and  at  Salt  Lake  Ashley 
met  one  of  their  chief  men,  Peter  Skeen  Ogden,  with  a  large 
quantity  of  furs  which  he  succeeded  in  buying  at  rates  that 
much  pleased  him,  especially  as  he  was  now  heavily  in  debt. 
With  these  he  returned  to  the  rendezvous,  where  soon  the 
trappers  came  in  with  splendid  packs  of  furs,  which,  could 
they  be  safely  delivered  in  St.  Louis,  would  immediately 
retrieve  the  General's  fortune  and  enlarge  it. 

The  fact  of  his  entrance  into  Red  Canyon  and  the  date  are 

recorded,  apparently  by  Ashley's  own  hand,  "AsHLEY,  1825," 

^     _  on  a  large  rock  on  the  left   bank  of  the 

^  fi<t\.X*Ejf  river,   over  a  sharp  drop  in  the  water,   in 

ioft5  the  upper  portion  of  the  canyon.     Of  this 

I  made  a  copy  in  187 1  and  append  a  repro- 


duction. The  rapid,  or  fall,  at  this  point 
is  named  after  the  bold  General,  Ashley  Fall.  The  account 
of  the  canyon  trip  is  from  Beckwourth,  to  whom  the  General 
told  it.     I  have  never  seen  any  other.     I  cannot  understand 


1     ?   2 


=3    « 


242  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

why  they  did  not  climb  out,  which  could  have  been  done  in 
many  places;  and  the  heights  abounded  in  game.  Perhaps 
the  reason  was  that,  constantly  expecting  the  end  of  the  gorge, 
they  went  on  till  hunger  caused  the  high  walls  to  seem  un- 
scalable; or  perhaps  they  were  not  in  such  desperate  straits 
for  food  as  Beckwourth  declares. 

His  rich  cargo  of  pelts  Ashley  took  to  St.  Louis  by  way  of 
the  Yellowstone  and  the  Missouri,  building  boats  for  the  pur- 
pose. On  the  way  he  met  General  Atkinson,  an  old  friend, 
who  had  been  sent  by  the  Government  up  the  Missouri  for 
the  purpose  of  driving  out  Hudson  Bay  trappers.  These  did 
not  then  much  intrude  into  that  region,  so  his  task  was  a  light 
one.  '  Ashley  reached  St.  Louis  at  last  with  the  furs  and  from 
being  in  debt  became  rich.  |  He  treated  his  men  handsomely, 
putting  them  up  at  the  best  hotel  with  carte  blanche  as  to 
orders,  paid  wages  in  full,  and  for  faithful  service  gave  each  a 
present  of  three  hundred  dollars  and  a  suit  of  clothes.  Ashley 
thus  was  more  successful  with  his  enterpiise  than  Lord  Selkirk 
was  with  one  he  embarked  in  to  settle  the  Red  River  country 
in  what  is  now  Manitoba.  He  obtained  in  1811  a  large  grant 
there,  but  the  North-west  Company  opposed  him,  not  desiring 
to  see  the  country  civilised,  and  finally  after  battles  and  blood- 
shed the  colony  collapsed. 

The  year  following  his  very  successful  return,  Ashley,  1826, 
went  again  to  the  mountains,  taking  a  six-pounder  with  him  all 
the  way  to  Utah  Lake,  then  called  Ashley's  Lake,  where  he 
built  a  fort.  His  men  had  ramified  in  every  direction,  busily 
trapping  during  his  absence.  It  was  in  the  winter  of  1824-25 
that  Bridger,  to  decide  a  bet  between  two  comrades  as  to 
where  Bear  River  emptied,  was  selected  to  trace  the  stream 
from  their  camp  in  Cache  Valley,  to  find  out.  Thus  he  came 
to  Salt  Lake  and  tasted  its  waters.  The  report  he  took  back 
to  the  camp  caused  the  men  to  believe  that  this  salt  water  was 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  an  idea  which  was  not  dispelled  till  the 
spring  of  1826,  when  four  of  the  men  circumnavigated  it  in  a 
skin  canoe,  searching  for  beaver  streams.  Robert  Campbell, 
who  was  in  Cache  Valley  when  the  party  came  back,  is  firm  in 
awarding  the  honour  of  discovering  Salt  Lake  to  Bridger,  but 


Salt  Lake  243 

as  Provost  had  been  in  that  neighbourhood  as  early  as  1820  he 
may  have  seen  the  lake  before  Bridger,  and  it  has  been  asserted 
that  he  did. 

The  treatment  of  the  natives  was  often  abominable,  and 
each  year  the  breach  between  whites  and  Amerinds  widened. 
Clarke,  of  the  Astoria  enterprise,  had  hung  a  Nez  Perce  in  full 
view  of  his  comrades  because  he  stole  a  silver  mug,  and  it  was 
such  treatment  as  this,  and  the  shooting  of  them  for  "fun," 
that  convinced  them  they  must  eternally  fight  the  white  man's 
advance.  They  therefore  adopted  various  methods.  One 
favourite  exploit  was  to  run  away  with  horses,  to  accomplish 
which  they  would  sometimes  pretend  friendship.  These  inci- 
dents were  sudden  and  startling.  Beckwourth  relates  this  one : 
"We  encamped  that  night,  keeping  a  strong  guard,  and  saw  all 
round  us,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  extend,  numerous  signal 
fires."     At  daylight  operations  began.     The  cry  went  up: 

"  The  ropes  are  cut!  Shoot  them  down!  Rifles  began  to  crack, 
and  six  of  the  Indians  fell,  five  of  whom  were  instantly  scalped  (for 
scalps  are  taken  off  with  greater  ease  while  the  bodies  are  warm),  and 
the  remaining  Indian  having  crawled  into  the  river  after  receiving 
his  wound,  his  scalp  was  lost.  One  of  their  chiefs  was  among  the 
slain.  He  was  shot  in  our  camp  before  he  had  time  to  make  his 
retreat." 

The  Blackfeet  were  always  hostile  to  everybody,  white  or  red, 
and  the  Arapahos  and  Sioux  were  apt  to  be.  Some  tribes 
were  friendly  most  of  the  time;  others  were  friendly  all  the 
time. 

Beckwourth  describes  numerous  bloody  engagements,  espe- 
cially when  he  was  a  chief  among  the  Crows,  but  doubtless 
these  accounts  must  be  somewhat  discounted.  Once  he  and 
Sublette  dragged  a  wounded  Amerind  away  from  the  enemy's 
lines,  although  the  desperate  fellow  clung  to  the  grass  and 
made  it  a  difificult  task.  They  placed  him  for  execution  be- 
fore one  of  their  own  men,  who  had  been  wounded,  in  order 
that  this  man  might  have  the  satisfaction  of  killing  one  of  the 
hated  race.     "But,"  says  Beckwourth,  "the  poor  fellow  had 


244  Breaking  the   Wilderness 

not  strength  sufficient  to  perforate  the  Indian's  skin  with  his 
knife,  and  we  were  obliged  to  perform  the  job  ourselves." 

Ashley  finally  sold  out  his  interest  to  Sublette,  Fitzpatrick, 
and  others,  who  made  up  the  Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company, 
and  himself  returned  to  St.  Louis  to  settle  down  and  enjoy 
the  large  income  now  his  from  the  success  of  his  energy  and 
judgment.  He  never  went  to  the  mountains  again.  He  had 
"handsome  grounds"  about  his  house,  and  enclosed  within 
them  one  or  two  of  the  ancient  mounds  which  then  were  com- 
mon on  the  site  of  St.  Louis.  At  this  time  in  St.  Louis  there 
was  a  variety  of  architecture.  There  were  broad,  steep-roofed 
stone  houses  of  the  French;  tall  stuccoed  dwellings  with  tiers 
"of  open  corridors  above  them,  like  a  once  showy  but  half- 
defaced  galleon  in  a  fleet  of  battered  frigates," — the  houses 
of  the  Spaniards;  and  the  "clipper-built  brick  houses  of  the 
Americans — light  as  a  Baltimore  schooner  and  pert  as  a  Con- 
necticut smack. ' '  The  population  was  seven  or  eight  thousand, 
extremely  varied  with  plenty  of  trappers  and  frontiersmen, 
who  "think  as  much  of  an  Indian  encounter  as  a  New  York 
blood  does  of  a  spree  with  a  watchman." 

[  Ashley  was  a  popular  man  in  every  way  and  was  twice 
elected  to  Congress  from  his  State.  Beckwourth  relates  the 
i  parting  incidents  when  Ashley  left  his  men  in  the  mountains: 
"We  were  all  sorry  to  part  with  the  General.  .  .  .  There 
was  always  something  encouraging  in  his  manner;  no  difficulty 
dejected  him;  kind  and  generous  in  his  disposition,  he  was 
loved  equally  by  all.  .  .  .  He  left  the  camp  amid  deafen- 
ing cheers  from  the  whole  crowd."  The  Rocky  Mountain  Fur 
Company  prospered  under  Sublette  and  Fitzpatrick,  though 
the  enormous  returns  of  the  first  years  could  not  again  be 
secured.  As  every  company  had  from  forty  or  fifty  to  several 
hundred  men  constantly  at  work,  the  beaver  ranks  were  rapidly 
thinned,  and  profits  correspondingly  diminished. 

The  Blackfeet  were  the  greatest  scourge  to  the  region, 
occupying  toward  the  country  around  the  headwaters  of  the 
Missouri  something  the  same  relation  that  the  Iroquois  did  to 
the  Ohio  valley,  and  the  Apaches  to  the  New  Mexican  terri- 
tory.    Sometimes  they  were  met  in  the  most  unexpected  way, 


A  Swim  for  Life 


245 


as  in  the  case  of  a  trapper  named  Clyburn,  who  with  one  com- 
panion was  on  his  way  to  the  rendezvous  of  his  company  with 
the  furs  of  a  wiiole  season.  As  they  turned  through  some 
timber  to  cross  a  stream  they  rode  squarely  into  a  Blackfoot 
camp.  Escape  was  impossible.  Clyburn  did  not  waver  for  a 
second,  but  rode  calmly  to  the  head 
chief's  tipi,  where  he  proclaimed 
himself  a  friend  who  wished  to  pass 
the  night  under  his  protection.  The 
chief  received  them  coldly,  ordered 
his  women  to  unpack  the  horses,  and 
demanded  from  the  men  an  account 
of  themselves,  also  how  they  dare  in- 
trude on  his  hunting-ground.  These 
questions  were  evaded  and  the  men 
tried  to  swallow  some  of  the  food 
placed  before  them,  though  they  felt 
little  like  eating.  Clyburn  overheard 
the  chief  say  they  must  be  killed. 
He  told  his  mate  and  instructed  him 
to  watch  closely  and  follow  every 
move  he  made.  When  it  grew  nearly 
dark  and  the  warriors  were  some- 
what off  their  guard,  Clyburn  sud- 
denly broke  for  the  river,  a  hundred 
yards  off,  with  his  companion  beside 
him.  There  were  wild  yells,  shots, 
confusion.  Clyburn swamthestream, 
hid  beneath  a  shelving  bank,  and 
when  the  search  was  abandoned  looked  about  for  the  other 
man.  He  was  nowhere  to  be  found  and  was  never  heard 
of  again.  Clyburn  succeeded  in  reaching  the  rendezvous, 
where  he  refitted  and  once  more  went  to  the  beaver  grounds. 
He  had  engaged  for  five  years,  and  when  his  time  was  up  he 
started  for  the  East.  Going  to  hunt  where  the  river  made  a 
large  bend,  he  missed  the  boat,  and  as  they  never  waited  for 
any  one  he  was  alone  on  the  plains  and  struck  out  on  foot  for 
Council  Bluffs,  a  thousand  miles  away,  where  he  finally  arrived 


Lower  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone. 

From  Wonderland,  1901,  Northern 
Pacific  Railway. 


246  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

with  barely  strength  enough  to  creep  on  all  fours.  These  men 
never  gave  up.  Never  did  their  nerve  give  way,  never  did 
they  admit  defeat ;  it  might  crush  them,  but  as  long  as  a  heart 
throb  remained  they  fought  against  it.  Death  alone  could 
check  their  efforts  to  retrieve  a  desperate  situation.  Two  fine 
.  examples  of  the  highest  type  of  the  Wilderness  breaker  were 
a  father  and  son  by  the  name  of  Pattie.  Sylvester,  the  father, 
was  about  forty-four,  who  had  moved  to  Missouri  from  that 
State  famous  for  great  hunters, — Kentucky.  He  was  familiar 
with  frontier  warfare,  having  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  army 
against  Amerind  foes.  Courageous  and  intelligent  beyond  the 
average,  he  was  held  in  high  esteem.  The  death  of  his  wife 
induced  a  species  of  melancholia,  and  on  the  advice  of  friends 
he  sold  his  property  and  fitted  out,  in  1824,  a  trapping 
expedition  to  divert  his  mind.  Distributing  his  children 
among  relatives,  he  yielded  to  the  pleadings  of  his  son, 
James  O.,  then  about  twenty,  and  added  him  to  his  party. 
His  goal  was  the  upper  Missouri,  the  region  then  most  talked 
about,  but  on  arriving  at  Council  Bluffs  with  his  men  and  ten 
horses  loaded  with  materials  for  a  trapping  and  trading  cam- 
paign, the  commanding  officer  of  the  post  refused  him  permis- 
sion to  proceed  as  he  had  no  license,  not  having  known  that 
one  would  be  required. 

He  was  not  to  be  easily  thwarted.  The  Santa  F6  trade 
was  growing  and  he  decided  to  turn  his  course  in  that  direc- 
tion. Selling  his  extra  arms  he  bought  more  goods  for  this 
trade,  and  then  joined  one  Pratte,  whom  they  had  met  on  the 
way  to  Council  Bluffs,  and  who  was  preparing  for  the  Santa 
Fe  journey.  Sylvester  Pattie  was  elected  to  command  the 
combined  parties,  many  of  the  men  having  served  as  rangers 
under  him.  There  were  116  all  told,  with  several  hundred 
horses  and  mules.  Pattie  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  caravan 
methodically  and  skilfully  and  they  went  up  the  Platte  without 
any  drawbacks.  The  Pawnees  welcomed  them  cordially,  even 
affectionately,  and  their  intercourse  would  have  been  altogether 
agreeable  had  not  a  war  party  come  in  at  a  village  of  Pawnee 
Loups  having  with  it  a  child  captive,  whose  mother  had  been 
killed  and  scalped.     This  harrowing  spectacle  of  the  unfortu- 


A  Child  Captive  247 

nate  little  redskin  probably  brought  Pattie's  own  children 
more  vividly  before  him,  and  he  offered  to  buy  the  boy,  but 
the  Pawnees  prepared  to  burn  him  as  a  part  of  their  victory 
celebration.  The  chief  was  unreasonably  greedy  in  negotiat- 
ing to  spare  the  child,  so  the  Pattie  outfit  decided  to  take  the 
little  prisoner  away  by  force.  The  thongs  binding  him,  over 
which  the  flesh  had  swelled  till  they  were  not  visible,  were 
removed,  and  he  was  sent  to  their  camp.  With  arms  in  readi- 
ness, Pattie  told  the  chief  they  meant  to  keep  the  boy.  He 
asked  if  they  thought  they  could  do  it,  to  which  Pattie  replied 
that  they  would  or  every  man  would  die  in  the  attempt. 
"Save  your  powder  and  lead  to  kill  buffaloes  and  your 
enemies,"  the  chief  said,  and  accepted  the  offer  of  goods. 
The  incident  is  worth  relating  as  it  shows  the  temper  of  the 
Patties,  and  many  other  trappers,  who  would  lightly  risk  their 
lives  and  all  their  possessions  to  save  an  unfortunate  little 
Amerind  child. 

One  day  farther  on  they  met  with  some  other  natives. 
The  little  boy  was  playing  about  the  camp  as  usual  when  the 
attention  of  the  white  men  was  suddenly  attracted  by  loud 
screams  and  cries. 

"  Looking  up  we  saw  our  little  boy  in  the  arms  of  an  Indian  whose 
neck  he  was  closely  clasping,  as  the  Indian  pressed  him  to  his 
bosom,  kissing  him  and  crying  at  the  same  time.  As  we  moved  to- 
wards the  spot,  the  Indian  approached  us  still  holding  the  child  in  his 
arms;  and  falling  on  his  knees  made  us  a  long  speech  which  we 
understood  only  through  his  signs." 

This  was  the  father  of  the  boy. 

White  bears  were  met  and  one  of  their  men  was  "literally 
torn  to  pieces"  by  one  and  died  five  days  after.  Pattie 
counted  in  one  day  220  of  these  grizzlies.  A  few  days  farther 
on  they  witnessed  a  great  battle  between  Comanches  and 
lotans.  "The  discharge  of  their  firearms  and  the  clashing  of 
their  different  weapons,  together  with  their  war  yell  and  the 
shrieks  of  the  wounded  and  dying,  were  fit  accompaniments  to 
the  savage  actors  and  scene.  The  contest  lasted  about  fifteen 
minutes," — the  Comanches  being  vanquished. 


248 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


At  last  they  arrived  at  San  Fernandez  de  Taos  and  then  at 
Santa  Fe,  which  had  a  population  of  about  five  thousand. 

With  some  trouble  they  obtained  permission  to  trap  on  the 
Gila,  "a  river,"  says  Pattie,  ''never  before  explored  by  white 
people."  They  soon  came  into  the  country  of  the  Apaches, 
and  one  of  the  men  was  killed  in  an  advance  party.     When 


On  the  Gila  River,  Arizona. 

This  is  the  place  chosen  for  the  San  Carlos  Irrigation  Dam. 

Photograph  by  J.  B.   Lippincott. 


the  Patties  came  to  the  point  they  saw  the  remains.  "They 
had  cut  him  in  quarters  after  the  fashion  of  butchers.  His 
head  with  the  hat  on  was  stuck  on  a  stake."  It  was  full  of 
arrows. 

After  considerable  manoeuvring  around  New  Mexico,  James 
O.  Pattie  again  went  trapping  down  the  Gila  and  its  branches 
to  the  Colorado  River  in  1826.  Up  the  Colorado  he  went  to 
the  Grand  Canyon,  the  first  American  apparently  to  see  it, 


Pattie's  Great  Journey  249 

then  across  country  not  far  from  the  great  gorge,  probably  on 
the  north,  till  they  came  to  Grand  River,  Colorado,  and  in 
April,  1827,  they  crossed  the  Continental  Divide  to  the  head 
of  the  Platte  near  Long's  Peak,  whence  they  proceeded  to  the 
Yellowstone,  terminating  there  a  remarkable  traverse  of  this 
part  of  the  Wilderness.  Pattie  then  went  back  to  Santa  Fe, 
where  his  father  had  remained,  and  once  more  started  out, 
going  to  the  Colorado,  where  they  trapped  beaver  down  to 
the  mouth,  intending  to  go  this  way  to  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments, which  they  thought  existed  there.  Encountering  the 
great  tidal  bore  they  were  nearly  wrecked.'  They  finally 
struck  across  for  the  California  missions,  suffering  greatly  for 
water,  and  reached  St.  Catherine's  in  1828.  Here  they  were 
arrested  and  Pattie  the  elder  at  length  died  in  prison.  James 
O.,  with  great  difficulty  after  long  captivity,  succeeded  in  free- 
ing himself  and  returned  to  his  home  by  way  of  Mexico, 
arriving  far  poorer  than  when  he  started  with  such  rosy  hopes 
and  his  father's  strong  support.  The  book  which  he  published 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  the  whole  range  of  this  liter- 
ature.^ Had  he  chosen  to  remain  in  the  Wilderness  there  is 
no  doubt  that  he  would  have  become  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  trappers,  but  the  death  of  his  father  took  the  romance  out 
of  the  life  and  he  cared  no  longer  for  adventure. 

William  Becknell,  in  1824,  went  far  west  of  Santa  Fe,  and 
in  August  of  the  same  year  William  Huddart,  with  fourteen 
men,  went  from  Taos  to  Green  River,  and  in  so  calling  the 
stream  used  the  term  for  the  first  time  on  record.  Green 
seems  to  have  been  a  denizen  of  Green  River  Valley  before 
1820.  They  probably  followed  the  old  Escalante  trail  approxi- 
mately. A  battle  with  Arapahos  finally  compelled  Huddart 
to  return  to  Taos  with  a  part  of  the  company,  the  others 
having  previously  gone  north  along  Green  River. 

The  afterwards  celebrated  Christopher  (Kit)  Carson  now 
appears  on  the  scene  in  New  Mexico,   1826,  only  seventeen 

'  For  further  details  of  this  part  of  Pattie's  journey  see  The  Romance  of  the 
Colorado  River,  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

^  The  Personal  Narrative  of  James  O.  Pattie  of  Kentucky,  edited  by  Timothy 
Flint. 


• 


250  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

years  old,  but  full  of  that  courage,  energy,  and  good  judgment 
which  finally  placed  his  name  at  the  top  of  the  list  of  Wilder- 
ness breakers.  1826  was  a  fruitful  year  in  exploration.  Lieu- 
tenant Hardy  of  the  British  navy  came  up  the  Gulf  of  California 
in  a  schooner  and  entered  the  Colorado  for  some  distance. 

Pattie,  the  first  American  to  see  the  Grand  Canyon,  so  far 
as  I  can  ascertain,  had  in  a  general  way  explored  the  Colorado 
from  its  mouth  to  the  head  of  its  Grand  River  branch.  He 
had  not  been  able  to  enter  the  deep  canyons,  but  he  had  seen 
them  from  above,  and  had  ascertained  the  character  of  the 
great  river  which  for  the  distance  from  at  least  White  River  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Virgin  remained  unbroken  wilderness 
for  more  than  forty  years  longer,  the  last  portion  to  be  van- 
quished.^ Pattie's  name  has  been  little  known  in  this  connec- 
tion, and  his  extraordinary  journey  has  not  received  the 
recognition  it  deserves,  for  it  actually  holds  a  place  alongside 
the  achievements  of  great  explorers.  The  same  year,  1826, 
that  Pattie  made  the  successful  traverse  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Gila  to  the  Yellowstone  by  way  of  the  Colorado  and  Grand 
rivers,  Jedediah  Smith  started  from  Salt  Lake  with  fifteen 
men  and,  proceeding  south  to  Utah  Lake,  thence  went  south- 
westerly about  on  the  same  trail  apparently  that  Escalante  had 
followed  in  1776,  till  he  came  to  the  Virgin  River,  which  he 
called  Adams  in  honour  of  the  President.  He  followed  it 
down  to  its  junction  with  the  Seedskedee  or  Colorado.  The 
Seedskedee  or  Green  River  was  also  known  as  the  Colorado, 
hence  when  Smith  speaks  of  the  Seedskedee  in  this  region  his 
meaning  is  perfectly  clear.'' 

The  Mohaves  were  kind  to  him  and  provided  food  and 
horses  with  which  he  went  on  to  the  Mission  of  San  Gabriel  in 
California,  the  first  American  on  record  to  go  there.  He  spent 
the  winter  trapping,  and  early  in  May,  1827,  tried  to  cross  the 
range,  probably  near  the  head  of  the  Merced,  without  success. 

^  Ashley  went  through  Red  Canyon  and  another  party  later  through  the 
Canyon  of  Lodore.     Below  this  there  is  no  record  of  successful  passage  till  1869. 

^  Chittenden  thinks  Smith  later  changed  the  name  Adams  to  Virgin  after 
Thomas  Virgin  of  his  party.  It  may,  however,  be  a  corruption  of  Le  Verkin,  a 
name  which  survives  in  one  of  the  branches. 


Jedediah  Smith 


251 


Another  attempt  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month,  with  two 
men,  seven  horses,  and  two  mules,  occupied  eight  days  and, 
with  the  loss  of  one  mule  and  two  horses,  they  came  down  on 
the  eastern  flank.  In  twenty  days  they  were  again  at  Salt 
Lake.  Chittenden  thinks  they  crossed  near  Sonora  Pass.  On 
July  13th  of  the  same  year  Smith  returned  to  California  by 
his  former  route  down  the  Virgin.     This  time  the  Mojaves, 


Headwaters  of  Virgin  River. 

Named  Adams  River  by  Jedediah  Smith  in  1826. 
Photograph  by  F.  S,  Dellenbaugh. 


prompted  by  Spaniards  it  is  said,  set  upon  his  party  as  they 
were  crossing  the  Colorado,  killing  ten  of  his  men  and  cap- 
turing everything.  Smith  at  last  reached  the  Spanish  set- 
tlements where  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  In  November 
he  was  allowed  to  go  on  condition  that  he  would  leave  Mexi- 
can territory.  He  had  left  the  bulk  of  his  party  behind  in 
California,  and  now  brought  them  together  again.  He  led 
his  men  to  San  Francisco  and  thence  up  to  the  Columbia, 
meeting  with  success  in  trapping  all  the  way.     Finally  he  had 


§252  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

accumulated  furs  worth  about  twenty  thousand  dollars  and 
prepared  to  take  them  back  to  Salt  Lake.  He  camped  in  the 
Shasta  country  one  night  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Umpqua. 
I'he  Shastas  seemed  to  be  entirely  friendly  and  Smith  was 
apparently  thrown  off  his  guard.  They  hung  about  camp, 
and  in  the  morning  when  Smith  was  on  a  raft  searching  for  a 
fording-place  for  the  pack  animals,  having  with  him  a  little 
Englishman  and  one  of  the  natives,  the  latter  suddenly  seized 
Smith's  gun  and  jumped  into  the  water.  At  this  moment  a 
wild  commotion  at  the  camp  indicated  an  attack  there.  Smith 
quickly  shot  the  Shasta  with  the  Englishman's  gun,  and  know- 
ing it  would  be  death  to  return  now  to  the  camp  made  for  the 
opposite  shore  and  at  length  succeeded  in  reaching  Fort  Van- 
couver, the  North-west-Hudson  Bay  post  on  the  Columbia  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Willamette, — the  fort  which  had  taken  the 
place  of  Astoria,  or,  more  correctly,  of  Fort  George.  Besides 
the  Englishman  who  was  with  him,  only  two  of  his  men  es- 
caped, Black  and  Turner,  the  latter  having  killed  four  Shastas 
with  a  half-burnt  stick  which  he  snatched  from  the  camp-fire 
at  the  moment  of  attack.  They  were  well  received  at  the 
British  fort,  and  everything  was  done  that  was  possible  to 
relieve  their  unfortunate  situation.  A  party  was  sent  to  pun- 
ish the  Shastas  according  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  policy, 
and  the  furs  and  goods  were  recovered.  Sir  George  Simpson, 
in  charge,  offered  to  send  Smith  with  his  furs  to  London  the 
next  summer  in  the  supply  ship,  but  Smith  preferred  to  sell 
out  to  Simpson  on  the  spot  and  in  March,  1829,  made  his  way 
across  by  way  of  Snake  River  toward  the  rendezvous.  Sublette 
about  this  time  sent  out  a  party  to  look  for  him,  and  they  came 
together  in  Pierre's  Hole.  The  journey  back  to  Salt  Lake 
from  here  was  easy  after  what  Smith  had  accomplished.  He 
had  executed  two  circuits  around  the  remaining  Unknown; 
journeys  that  must  ever  stand  in  the  front  rank  with  those 
of  Lewis  and  Clark,  Wilson  Price  Hunt,  Robert  Stuart,  and 
James  O.  Pattie,  in  the  breaking  of  the  Wilderness. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

A  Brood  of  Wilderness  Breakers — Kit  Carson  the  Dauntless — Campbell,  1827, 
Santa  Fe  to  San  Diego — Becknell  and  the  Santa  Fe  Trail — Wheel  Tracks  in 
the  Wilderness— The  Knight  in  Buckskin  Dies — Pegleg  Smith  the  Horse 
Trader — The  Apache  Turns  Forever  against  the  American — New  Mexico 
the  Dreamland — VVolfskill  Breaks  a  Trail  to  the  Pacific — Bonneville,  Captain 
Courteous  ;  and  Wyeth,  Leader  Hopeful — Bonneville  Forgets  a  Duty. 


THE  Mexicans  were  restless  over  the  advent  of  the  numerous 
Americans  who  now  appeared  in  their  settled  valley, 
which,  for  more  than  a  century  and  a  half,  had  lain  completely 
isolated  from  the  outer  world,  a  lone  child  of  the  Wilderness, 
a  sort  of  dreamland  where  one  day  was  like  another  day,  and 
where  years  rolled  into  decades,  even  centuries,  without  any 
one  knowing  it.  The  Americans,  quick,  sharp,  bluff,  ener- 
getic, startled  these  slow  people,  yet  the  officials  tried  to  im- 
pose on  them.  Trapping  was  permitted  because  the  Mexicans 
did  not  know  how  to  do  it,  but  after  the  American  had 
reaped  a  harvest  it  was  not  easy  to  get  away  with  it,  for 
by  some  flimsy  subterfuge  the  furs  might  be  confiscated 
and  the  trapper  on  a  pretext  thrown  into  prison,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Patties  in  California.  Nevertheless  the  Ameri- 
can trapping  operations  quickly  extended  over  all  the  New 
Mexican  territory  as  well  as  over  the  region  north  of  the  forty- 
second  parallel,  still  undetermined  as  to  ownership.  British 
mainly  operated  there.  The  ten  years  agreed  upon  in  1818 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  as  to  this  tract 
expired  without  their  being  able  to  come  to  an  understanding, 
and  the  agreement  was  renewed  for  a  second  ten  years.  Russia 
came  to  terms  on  her  southern  and  eastern  boundary,  making 

253 


254 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


treaties  with  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  the  one  with 
the  latter  establishing  in  1825  the  lines  of  Alaska  that  were 
inherited  in  1867  by  the  United  States,  and  only  definitely 
settled  in  1903.  Matters  relating  to  the  Mexican  country  and 
to  the  Oregon  region  remained  therefore  for  another  decade 
without  political  change. 


Prairie  Dogs. 

From  Wonderland,  igoi.     Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


The  American  trappers  were  not,  however,  deterred  in  the 
slightest  degree  by  boundaries,  or  diplomacy,  or  the  attempted 
impositions  of  the  Mexican  officials.  They  plunged,  more 
actively  than  ever,  into  their  pursuit  of  the  unfortunate  beaver, 
no  matter  where  it  led  so  long  as  they  had  rifle  in  hand,  and 
incidentally  they  were  performing  the  whole  world  a  service 
by  swinging  open  the  gates  of  the  Wilderness.  Kit  Carson, 
one  soon  to  become   familiar  with  almost  every  part  of  the 


Kit  Carson  255 

vast  region,  began  his  exploits  in  New  Mexico  in  1826,  at  the 
age  of  seventeen.  A  whole  brood  of  these  remarkable  char- 
acters appear  to  have  been  born  at  one  particular  period,  as  if 
planned  expressly  to  be  thrown  at  the  beginning  of  their  man- 
hood  into  the  vast  Wilderness,  to  reduce  it  for  travel  by  less 
dauntless  spirits.  Carson  joined  a  party  of  these  men  to  trap 
down  the  Gila  and  its  branches  in  1828,  having  spent  the  winter 
of  1826-27  at  San  Fernandez  de  Taos  learning  Spanish,  so  that 
he  was  able  to  converse  with  the  Mexicans  here  and  in  Cali- 
fornia where  they  went  trapping  on  the  Sacramento,  finally 
reaching  Santa  Fe  again,  where  their  furs  were  sold  and  the 
party  disbanded.  Carson  was  alert,  cool,  honourable,  exact, 
with  that  abounding  self-confidence  that  led  him  to  balk  at 
nothing,  and,  though  so  young,  move  rapidly  to  the  lead.  I 
knew  a  man  of  this  type,  who  was  so  certain  that  nothing 
serious  could  possibly  happen  to  him  that  he  was  perfectly 
nonchalant  in  every  danger,  but  his  eye  was  always  alert,  his 
movements  quick  as  a  tiger's,  and  his  aim  unflinching  and 
sure. 

One  incident  will  serve  to  show  this  confidence  and  quick- 
ness of  Carson.  While  on  Green  River  an  Amerind  stole  six 
horses  belonging  to  the  trader  Robideau,  who  had  employed 
him.  Carson  and  a  Ute  pursued.  The  Ute's  horse  gave  out 
and  he  would  not  continue  on  foot,  so  Carson  went  on  alone 
thirty  miles  farther,  and  came  up  with  the  culprit.  The  thief 
saw  him  and  rushed  for  shelter,  but  Carson  fired  so  skilfully 
from  his  horse  moving  at  full  speed  that  he  killed  the  wretch 
at  once.  His  reputation  for  skill  and  daring  had  spread  before 
he  was  fairly  of  age.  He  fell  in  with  Fitzpatrick,  Bridger, 
Sublette,  Smith,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  now  famous  coterie  of 
mountain  men  who  so  brilliantly  adorned  this  epoch  in  the 
Wilderness,  and  his  career  was  filled  with  deeds  of  wild  daring.* 
He  engaged  one  winter  to  hunt  for  the  men  at  Fort  Davy 
Crockett,  founded  in  Brown's  Hole,  and  he  then  became 
familiar  with  the  course  of  Green  River  in  that  vicinity, 
though  he  seems  never  to  have  cared  to  attempt  the  naviga- 
tion of  its  impetuous  torrent.     The  great  rendezvous  in  Green 

^  There  are  several  biographies  of  Carson. 


256 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


_River  Valley  also  saw  him  often  and  he  described  it.     At  the 
selected  place 

\  **  for  the  rendezvous,  in  the  space  of  two  or  three  miles  upon  either 
side  of  the  river,  the  bottom  spreads  out  in  a  broad  prairie,  and  the 
luxuriant  growth  of  grass,  with  the  country  open  all  about  it,  made 


On  the  Yuma  Desert.    A  Dying  Horse. 

Photograph  by  Delancy  Gill. 


the  spot  desirable  for  a  large  encampment.  ...  A  scattered 
growth  of  fine  old  trees  furnishes  shade  at  every  camp,  and  imme- 
diately about  the  great  tent  they  afford  protection  from  the  sun  to 
parties  of  card  players,  or  a  'Grocery  Stand  '  at  which  the  principal 
article  of  sale  is  *  whiskey  by  the  glass,'  and  perhaps  further  on  is  a 
mo/z^e  table,  parties  from  several  Indian  tribes,  and  the  pioneer  of 
semi-civilisation — the  backwoodsman — has  come  in  with  his  traps, 
a  few  bags  of  flour,  and  possibly  some  cheese  and  butter,  and  the 
never-failing  cask  of  whiskey."  ^ 

'  Burdette's  Li/e  of  Kit  Carson. 


William  Becknell  257 

At  such  a  place  the  trapper,  who  had  led  for  a  whole  year 
his  lonely  life  in  the  mountains,  ran  riot  for  a  brief  time,  as  a 
sailor  will  after  a  long  voyage;  and  then  he  vanished  again 
into  the  wilds. 

Richard  CampJDell  in  1827,  with  thirty-five  men  and  a  pack 
train,  travelled  from  Santa  Fe  to  San  Diego  by  way  of  Zuni, 
and  this  part  of  the  continent  at  last  began  to  be  understood. 
Intercourse  between  St.  Louis  and  Santa  Fe  was  gradually 
growing  in  permanence  and  importance.  Although  McKnight, 
Chambers,  Baird,  and  others  had  ventured  to  Santa  F6  to 
trade  as  early  as  18 12,  the  conditions  were  unfavourable.  They 
were  seized  as  spies  and  thrown  into  jail  at  Chihuahua,  where 
they  remained  for  nine  years.  Their  goods  were  confiscated. 
When  Iturbide  finally  succeeded,  they  were  liberated.  Glenn* 
and  Fowler  met  them  at  Taos  at  the  time  they  arrived. 

William  Becknell  went  out  in  1821  to  trade  with  the 
Comanches,  but  falling  in  with  some  Mexican  rangers,  they 
persuaded  him  to  go  to  Santa  F^,  where  he  sold  out  at  prices 
which  netted  splendid  profits. 

In  1822,  a  man  named  Cooper  with  his  sons  also  made  the 
traverse  of  the  plains  with  a  party  of  about  fifteen,  arriving  at 
Taos  with  $5000  worth  of  goods;  and  Becknell  a  month  later 
with  thirty  men.  came  again  with  another  $5CXXD  worth.  He 
took  a  more  direct  route  than  had  been  followed  before,  and 
his  party  had  a  fearful  time,  nearly  dying  of  thirst  in  the  barren 
dry  region  along  the  Cimarron,  a  river  they  were  quite  near  and 
did  not  know  it.  At  last  when  they  were  on  the  point  of  ex- 
piring, and  some  had  actually  cut  off  their  mules'  ears  to  drink 
the  blood  that  would  flow,  they  discovered  a  buffalo  fresh  from 
the  river  bank,  its  sides  distended  with  water.  It  was  instantly 
killed  and  the  water  it  contained  saved  the  party, — a  new  use 
for  the  animal. 

This  was  the  real  beginning  of  the  famous  Santa  Fe  Trail 
by  which  the  great  annual  caravans  found  their  way  back  and 
forth  between  Franklin,  on  the  Missouri,  150  miles  west  of  St. 
Louis,  and  the  New  Mexican  capital.  Independence  finally 
became  the  eastern  terminal.  Gregg  has  written  an  admirable 
account  of  the  Trail,  and  all  who  read  it  will  acknowledge  their 


258  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

indebtedness  for  the  accuracy,  interest,  and  general  excellence 
of  this  contribution  to  Southwestern  history. 

In  1824,  an  effort  was  made  to  use  waggons.  A  party  which 
had  twenty-five  wheeled  vehicles  besides  pack-animals,  trans- 
porting all  together  about  $30,000  worth  of  merchandise,  started 
and  arrived  successfully.  By  government  order  J.  C.  Brown 
then,  1825-27,  with  chain  and  compass  surveyed  the  road  from 
Fort  Osage  to  Taos.  The  natives  gave  little  trouble  in  the 
early  days  of  the  trail,  and  Gregg  says  the  great  hostility  which 
afterwards  developed  was  partly  due  to  the  brutality  of  the 
whites  in  killing  natives,  whether  they  had  done  wrong  or  not. 
Instead  of  mules,  oxen  were  later  largely  employed.  As  far  as 
Council  Grove  the  traders  usually  travelled  in  detached  parties, 
but  there  the  caravan  was  made  up  with  some  attempt  at  military 
form.  A  captain  was  always  elected,  but  he  had  little  real  con- 
trol. Gregg  crossed  in  183 1  with  a  caravan  which  had  nearly 
one  hundred  waggons,  drawn  by  mules  and  oxen  in  about 
equal  proportions.  The  value  of  the  goods  was  $200,000. 
The  party  had  two  cannon,  a  four-  and  a  six-pounder,  for  can- 
non were  considered  highly  desirable  for  this  work  at  that 
time.  There  were  two  hundred  men  organized  in  four  divi- 
sions. A  constant  guard  was  set  and  all  precautions  taken  to 
prevent  surprise.  In  Gregg's  caravan  were  several  Spanish 
women  who  had,  with  their  family,  been  banished  in  1829. 
The  ban  having  been  removed,  they  were  now  returning  home. 
They  appear  to  have  been  the  first  European  women  ever  to 
cross  the  Wilderness  from  this  direction. 

The  caravans,  so  far  as  possible,  always  proceeded  with 
order  and  regularity,  and  it  is  an  illuminating  fact  that  all 
parties  in  the  Wilderness  which  had  such  organisation  and  sys- 
tematic movement  met  with  very  little  trouble.  Ashley  was 
another  example  of  this.  Everything  with  him  was  admirably 
systematised.  Each  man  knew  exactly  what  he  had  to  do  as 
to  the  horses  and  everything  else.  At  night  the  animals  were 
tethered  with  a  strong  rope,  attached  to  a  stake  two  feet  long, 
expressly  made  for  this  and  fortified  with  an  iron  band  at  the 
top  and  an  iron  point.  His  party  was  divided  into  three  or 
four  sections  with  his  most  confidential  men  in  command,  and 


Ashley's  Methods  259 

the  sections  were  subdivided  into  messes  under  reliable  men. 
When  they  went  into  camp,  the  position  of  each  mess  was  as- 
signed, and  they  arranged  their  baggage,  saddles,  etc.,  as  a 
breastwork  in  case  of  attack  in  the  night.  The  stock  were 
watered  and  turned  over  to  the  horse  guard  who  kept  them  on 
good  grass  nearby  till  sunset,  when  each  man  brought  in  the 
horses  under  his  care,  put  on  a  stronger  halter,  set  his  stakes, 
and  otherwise  prepared  the  animals  for  a  comfortable  night. 
Guard  was  set  regularly,  of  course,  and  in  the  early  morning, 
if  in  dangerous  country,  two  men  mounted  and  scouted  the 
neighbourhood  before  any  others  were  permitted  to  leave  the 
breastworks.  On  the  march,  scouts  were  constantly  thrown 
ahead,  on  the  sides,  and  to  the  rear.  No  enemy  could  surprise 
Ashley's  parties,  and  they  were  also  enabled  to  cover  ground 
rapidly. 

"  In  this  way  [says  Ashley]  I  have  marched  parties  of  men 
the  whole  way  from  St.  Louis  to  the  vicinity  of  Grand  Lake, 
which  is  situated  about  150  miles  down  the  waters  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  in  seventy-eight  days.  In  the  month  of  March,  1827,  I 
fitted  out  a  party  of  sixty  men,  mounted  a  piece  of  artillery  (a  four- 
pounder)  on  a  carriage  which  was  drawn  by  two  mules;  the  party 
marched  to  or  near  the  Grand  Salt  Lake  beyond  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains, remained  there  one  month,  stopped  on  the  way  back  fifteen 
days,  and  returned  to  Lexington  in  the  western  part  of  Missouri  in 
September,  where  the  party  was  met  with  everything  necessary  for 
another  outfit,  and  did  return  (using  the  same  horses  and  mules)  to 
the  mountains  by  the  last  of  November  in  the  same  year." 

This  proves  what  good  planning  and  proper  organisation  will 
do.  Had  Wilson  Price  Hunt  been  as  scientific  and  as  cautious 
as  Ashley,  his  great  traverse  would  have  been  exempt  from 
the  harrowing  disasters  which  followed  it  so  relentlessly.  From 
that  day  to  this>  suffering  and  failure  have  more  often  been  due 
to  contempt  for  adequate  preparation  than  to  any  other  single 
cause. 

The  caravansjiLthe  Santa  Fe  Trail,  also,  moved  with  con- 
siderable regularity  and  order,  but  their  make-up  was  more 
heterogeneous  and  there  was  no  dominating  control.     Where 


26o  Breaking  the  Wilderness 


^^ 


there  were  many  waggons,  they  marched  in  three  or  four 
parallel  columns,  "but  in  broken  lines,  often  at  intervals  of 
many  rods  between."  At  night  they  were  arranged  in  a  quad- 
rangle with  a  gap  left  at  the  rear  corner  as  an  entrance  for  the 
animals,  which  after  grazing  for  a  few  hours  were  shut  up  in 
this  corral  of  waggons.  One  of  the  difficulties  was  the  stam- 
pede. This  frequently  started  from  some  slight  cause.  The 
oxen,  even  if  yoked,  dashed  at  headlong  speed  across  the 
plain,  with  the  mules  and  horses  intermingled.  Oxen  when 
frightened  were  the  most  difficult  to  control  and  did  not  re- 
cover their  calm  as  speedily  as  horses  and  mules. 

Mules  were  the  most  advantageous,  but  were  also  the  most 
expensive.  They  possessed  one  characteristic  which  was  use- 
ful as  well  as  peculiar.  They  could  detect  the  presence  or  the 
approach  of  an  Amerind  long  before  it  could  be  learned  in  any 
other  way,  but  I  have  seldom  seen  this  peculiarity  noted.  It 
was  indicated  by  a  restlessness,  a  pricking  up  of  -the  ears,  and 
a  general  alertness  as  of  a  dog  approaching  game.  When  I 
have  been  riding  a  mule  in  the  mountains,  I  have  often  been 
apprised  of  the  approach  of  natives  in  this  way,  before  I  noticed 
any  other  sign.  I  am  satisfied  that  no  Amerind  could  ever 
approach  on  the  windward  a  mule  not  accustomed  to  them, 
without  being  discovered.  It  used  to  afford  us  amusement 
when  an  Amerind  guide  tried  to  mount  a  mule,  and  we  some- 
times were  forced  to  hold  the  animal  securely  till  he  could  get 
on.  With  usual  mule  perversity,  once  the  native  was  in  the 
saddle  the  scene  calmed,  only  to  be  repeated  when  he  tried 
mounting  again. 

A  cry  of  "Indians!"  set  the  caravan  in  commotion,  and 
amidst  great  excitement  all  prepared  for  defence.  If  the 
party  were  a  large  one  it  was  seldom  troubled,  hence  all  who 
wished  to  cross  combined,  forming  an  annual  caravan  for 
mutual  protection  which  went  out  and  back  at  fixed  periods, 
but  sometimes  small  parties  ran  the  risk  of  crossing  alone. 

In  the  winter  of  1832-33,  twelve  men  with  their  baggage 
and  about  $10,000  in  specie  left  New  Mexico  for  the  States. 
They  met  a  large  body  of  Comanches  and  Kiowas,  who  ap- 
proached one  by  one  and  in  small  bodies  till  they  were  all 


OF  THE      ■* 

UNIVERSITY 


^62  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

beside  the  travellers,  who  began  to  move  on.  A  man  named 
Pratt,  trying  to  herd  in  two  mules,  was  shot.  A  battle  then 
opened.  The  white  men  made  a  breastwork  of  their  packs 
and  fought  desperately  for  thirty-six  hours,  when  they  made 
an  effort  to  escape  in  the  night.  The  owners  of  the  money 
told  all  to  help  themselves,  and  what  could  not  be  carried  was 
buried  in  the  sand,  where  the  Comanches  afterwards  found  it. 
The  men  stole  away  as  quietly  as  possible  in  the  darkness. 
Five  went  west  and  at  last  reached  a  Creek  village  near  the 
Arkansas  where  they  were  kindly  received.  Only  two  of  the 
others  succeeded  in  getting  out  of  the  Wilderness. 

It  was  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  in  1831  that  the  famous 
Jedediah  Smith  finally  lost  his  life.  With  his  partners,  Jack- 
son and  Sublette,  he  had  gone  into  the  Santa  F6  trade  and 
was  on  his  way  to  that  capital.  In  his  remarkable  career  he 
had  escaped  many  dangers,  and  he  was  still  a  very  young  man, 
but  his  hour  was  approaching.  He  started  for  Santa  Fe  over 
the  general  route,  but  after  leaving  the  Arkansas  became  lost 
among  the  multitudinous  buffalo  trails.  Gregg  says  :  "  He  was 
one  of  the  most  undaunted  spirits  that  ever  traversed  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  if  one  half  of  what  has  been  told  of  him  be  true 
...  he  would  surely  be  entitled  to  one  of  the  most  exalted 
seats  in  the  Olympus  of  Prairie  Mythology."  There  was  some- 
thing highly  dramatic  in  the  lonely  simplicity  of  this  dauntless 
trapper's  death  amidst  a  wide  barren  waste,  at  the  hands  of 
the  race  he  had  so  often  successfully  opposed  and  eluded. 
He  set  off  alone  to  find  water  for  his  party  in  the  dreary  ex- 
panse of  the  Cimarron  desert,  when  on  mounting  a  hill  he  per- 
ceived what  appeared  to  be  a  small  river.  It  was  the  sandy 
bed  of  the  deceptive  Cimarron.  Smith  scooped  out  a  basin  in 
the  moist  sand  and  waited  for  the  water  to  fill  it,  unconscious 
of  a  band  of  Comanches  lurking  near.  As  he  stooped  to  drink, 
an  arrow  pierced  him.  With  the  indomitable  tenacity  and 
power  that  so  often  had  carried  him  through  danger,  he  re- 
turned the  fire  and  two  or  three  of  the  enemy  paid  with  their 
lives  the  penalty  of  bringing  the  gallant  knight  in  buckskin  to 
the  ground.  The  picture  was  exactly  the  composition  one 
would  expect  to  find  surrounding  the  last  hour  of  this  eminent 


Pegleg  Smith 


263 


and  characteristic  breaker  of  the  Wilderness.  His  task  was 
done.  Beside  the  treacherous  Cimarron  his  bones  are  for- 
gotten, but  his  splendid  fearlessness,  his  even  justice,  and  his 
bold  enterprise  in  cleaving  the  silent  mysteries  have  consecrated 
the  sands  that  drank  his  blood  and  dedicated  the  Wilderness  to 
a  lofty  future. 

He  had  a  brother,  Thomas  L.  Smith,  equally  energetic  and 


The  Heart  of  the  Sierra, 
Photograph  by  Watkins. 


fearless,  but  who  lacked  the  refined  moral  tone  of  Jedediah. 
He  was  widely  known  in  the  Wilderness,  though  more  after 
the  manner  of  Rose  and  Beckwourth.  ''Pegleg ''  Smith  was 
his  ordinary  title  because  one  leg  had  been  cut  off  below  the 
knee.  It  had  been  so  badly  hurt  in  a  battle  that  under  Peg- 
leg's  direction  an  Amerind  companion  amputated  it  with  a 
hunting  knife  and  a  keyhole  saw.  A  wooden  leg  was  then 
substituted.  This  did  not  materially  interfere  with  Pegleg's 
peculiar    business,    stealing    horses    from    the    Mexicans   and 


^64  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Californians,  and  trading  horses,  for  he  was  in  the  saddle  a 
great  deal  and  that  was  home  to  him.  His  operations  had  a 
wide  range.  On  one  raid  he  succeeded  with  the  aid  of  Beck- 
wourth  and  a  band  of  Amerinds  in  getting  out  of  California 
by  the  southern  route  with  about  three  thousand  head ;  but, 
after  the  United  States  acquired  the  Mexican  territories,  he 
gave  up  his  raids  as  he  would  not  operate  against  his  own 
countrymen. 

The  frontiersmen — trappers,  hunters,  and  traders^had  little 
respect  for  the  Mexicans,  and  the  treatment  which  the  cupidity 
of  the  officials  led  them  to  bestow  on  trappers  who  came  into 
their  power  tended  to  widen  the  breach.  All  along  the  line, 
therefore,  fires  of  resentment  were  smouldering  which  before 
long  were  to  break  into  flame  and  consume  the  Mexican  power 
in  this  quarter. 

Gregg,  who  was  nine  years  among  them,  said  of  the 
Mexicans': 

f  **  They  have  no  stability  except  in  artifice;  no  profundity  except  for 
intrigue;  qualities  for  which  they  have  acquired  an  unenviable  celeb- 
rity. Systematically  cringing  and  subservient  while  out  of  power, 
as  soon  as  the  august  mantle  of  authority  falls  upon  their  shoulders, 
there  are  but  little  bounds  to  their  arrogance  and  vindictiveness  of 
spirit." 

The  Wilderness  breaker  had  no  fear  whatever  of  these  people, 
but  much  contempt  for  them.  A  few  trappers  were  generally 
a  match  for  half  an  army  of  Mexicans.  Milton  Sublette,  a 
well-known  trapper,  brother  of  William  Sublette,  while  in  New 
Mexico  with  Ewing  Voung,  had  his  furs,  which  he  had  con- 
cealed, seized  and  confiscated.  The  packs  being  damp  were 
spread  out  to  dry,  and  Sublette  recognised  some  unquestion- 
ably belonging  to  him.  Before  the  eyes  of  the  whole  garrison 
he  carried  these  away, 

**  and  concealed  both  them  and  his  own  person  in  a  house  opposite. 
The  entire  military  force  was  immediately  put  in  requisition  and  a 
general  search  made  for  the  offender  and  his  prize — but  in  vain 

^  Commerce  of  the  Prairies. 


Treachery  of  the  Whites  265 

.  the  troops  seemed  to  have  as  little  desire  to  find  Sublette  as 
the  latter  had  of  being  found;  for  his  character  was  too  well  known 
to  leave  room  for  hope  that  his  capture  could  be  effected  without  a 
great  deal  of  trouble." 

The  governor,  Armijo,  "raved  and  threatened— had  some  can- 
non pointed  at  the  house — declaring  he  would  batter  it  down 
— but  all  to  no  purpose."  Sublette  finally  got  away  with  the 
furs. 

For  amusements,  Santa  Fe  occupied  itself  largely  with  bull- 
baiting,  cock-fighting,  dancing,  and  gambling.  A  considerable 
trade  was  carried  on  with  the  Apaches,  war  materials  and 
whiskey  being  exchanged  for  mules  and  other  property  stolen 
from  settlements  to  southward.  The  Sonoran  Government 
issued  a  proclamation  declaring  all  booty  that  might  be  taken 
from  savages  to  belong  to  the  captors,  which  led  a  party  of 
foreigners  under  the  lead  of  an  American  to  visit  a  large  camp 
of  about  fifty  warriors  with  their  families.  Among  these  was 
Juan  Jose,  a  famous  chief  who  had  been  educated  at  Chihuahua, 
and  who  had  harassed  the  Mexicans  terribly.  Jose  was  willing 
to  either  fight  or  trade, 

"  but  on  being  assured  that  it  was  a  trading  party  a  friendly  inter- 
view was  immediately  established.  A  small  field-piece  which  had 
been  concealed  was  loaded  with  chain  and  canister  and  held  in 
readiness.  The  warriors  were  then  invited  to  the  white  men's  camp 
to  receive  a  present  of  flour  which  was  placed  within  range  of  the 
cannon.  While  the  Apaches  were  dividing  this  they  were  fired  on 
and  a  number  were  killed.  The  remainder  were  then  attacked,  and 
about  twenty  slain,  including  Jose  and  other  chiefs.  Those  who 
escaped  became  afterwards  their  own  avengers  in  a  manner  which 
proved  terribly  disastrous  to  another  party  of  Americans  who  hap- 
pened at  the  same  time  to  be  trapping  on  the  Rio  Gila  not  far  dis- 
tant.    They  massacred  every  one — about  fifteen."  ' 

From  this  time  forth  the  Apaches  became  the  open,  deadly 
foe  of  all  Americans  as  they  had  previously  been  of  the  Mexi- 
cans.    It  became  all  round  a  war  of  extermination  which  ended 

^  Gregg,  Commerce  of  the  Prairies. 


»FTHE 


•  26b 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


only  when  General  Crook,  many  years  later,  finally  captured 
the  last  famous  warrior,  Geronjmo.  The  Apache  has  been 
much  reviled,  and  he  certainly  was  a  terror  and  made  that 


A  Rose  of  New  Mexico. 
Photograph  by  C.  C.  Pierce  &  Co. 


portion  of  the  Wilderness  a  dangerous  place  for  Mexicans  and 
Americans,  yet,  estimated  judicially,  he  seems  to  have  had 
some  right  on  his  side,  and  he  was  not  more  cruel  or  treacher- 


New  Mexican  Life  267 

ous  than  the  whites.  He  went  under  eventually  because  of 
the  overpowering  numbers  of  his  opponents,  but,  considering 
all  the  circumstances,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  people  ever  made  a 
braver  or  more  determined  stand  against  their  acknowledged 
enemies  and  oppressors  than  did  the  Apaches. 

Gold  mines  were  now  worked  in  New  Mexico,  El  Real  de 
Dolores^  the  chief  one,  turning  out  about  $75,000  a  year  be- 
tween 1832-35.  It  was  opened  in  1828.  The  gold  was  washed 
out  in  wooden  bowls.  No  foreigners  were  allowed  to  work 
mines,  but,  as  noted,  they  were  permitted  to  trap  because  the 
Mexicans  did  not  know  how  to  do  this.  Besides,  the  governor 
would  often  confiscate  the  results  of  the  trapper's  labours,  and 
this  was  an  easy  way  of  making  money.  Silver  mines  had 
been  only  slightly  worked  in  earlier  days  and  not  at  all  for  a 
century.  The  copper  mines  near  Socorro  were  the  most  suc- 
cessful in  the  country,  at  least  till  the  gold  mines  began  to  be 
opened. 

Everything  was  primitive.  Sawed  lumber  was  unknown. 
The  buildings  were  mainly  of  adobe.  Vehicles  were  carretas 
(carts)  with  wheels  hewn  out  of  a  cottonwood  log,  with  an  ad- 
ditional segment  pinned  on  each  edge  and  dressed  into  an 
irregular  circle  (see  page  177),  and  required  three  or  four  yokes 
of  oxen  to  draw  them.  Ploughs  were  no  more  than  a  log" with 
a  branch  left  on  for  a  handle  and  a  sharp  stick  attached  for  a 
share.  Agriculture  was  correspondingly  primitive  in  its  re- 
turns, 3^et,  thanks  to  irrigation,  there  was  generally  an  abund- 
ance of  what  was  needed.  Sheep  were  bred  in  enormous 
numbers,  as  many  as  two  hundred  thousand  to  five  hundred 
thousand  being  driven  to  market  in  one  year.  Horses  and 
cattle  were  also  numerous,  and  the  skill  of  the  vaquero,  or 
herder,  in  riding  and  throwing  the  lasso  was  unsurpassed.  No 
horse  was  too  fractious  to  ride,  and  he  could  catch  an  animal 
by  any  limb  he  chose. 

A  favourite  article  of  diet  was  the  tortillas,  made  of  corn 
boiled  in  water  with  a  little  lime  till  soft  enough  for  the  skin 
to  come  off.  Then  it  was  ground  to  a  paste  on  the  metate\  a 
flat  stone,  and  formed  into  a  thin  cake,  which  was  spread  on  a 
sheet  of  iron  or  copper,  called  a  comal  {comalli ),  and  placed  over 


.268 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


the  fire,  where  it  baked  in  two  or  three  minutes.  A  sort  of 
thin  mush  called  atole  was  a  favourite  drink,  and  there  were 
also  wine,  and  a  sort  of  strong  liquor  called  aguardiente  or 
ratafia  (Taos  lightning).  Taken  all  in  all  the  American  trapper 
did  not  have  such  a  bad  time  in  New  Mexico  after  it  left  the 
hands  of  Spain,  so  far  as  the  people  were  concerned,  and  had 
they  despised  the   Mexicans   less,   matters  would  have  been 


On  the  Gila. 

Photograph  by  J.  B.  Lippincott. 


pleasanter,  though,  as  Gregg  says,  the  government  was  whim- 
sical and  oppressive,  as  much,  however,  to  Mexicans  as  to 
Americans. 

A  high  tariff  was  laid  on  goods  from  the  United  States, 
though  it  was  generally  compromised  on  the  Mexican  frontier. 
When  Governor  Armijo,  however,  came  in  he  imposed  a  tax 
of  $500  on  every  waggon,  no  matter  what  its  size  or  contents. 
The  result  was  that  waggons  grew  to  the  limit  in  proportions, 
and  Armijo  was  obliged  to  go  back  to  ad  valorem  assessments. 


Treatment  of  Natives  269 

Between  the  Missouri  River  and  the  mountains  there  were  no 
settlements  then,  above  Texas. 

Thomas  Forsyth,  who  had  long  experience  among  the 
people  of  the  Wilderness,  said  he  thought  that  in  most  mis- 
understandings the  fault  was  with  the  white  people.  He  told 
of  a  young  agent  on  the  Missouri  River  who  cut  off  the  ears 
of  a  half-breed  because,  when  drunk,  he  had  spoken  disrespect- 
fully of  the  Americans.  Another  agent  on  the  Mississippi 
turned  out  of  the  guard-house  an  innocent  Indian  to  others, 
his  enemies,  who  butchered  him  in  the  presence  of  the  whole 
garrison.  Forsyth  remarks,  also:  "In  my  intercourse  with 
the  Indians  for  the  last  forty  years  I  never  found  that  coercive 
measures  ever  had  any  good  effect  with  them,  but  that  con- 
ciliatory measures  always  tended  to  produce  every  purpose 
required." 

The  intercourse  between  the  tribes  of  the  Wilderness  and 
the  whites  was  rapidly  increasing,  and  this  period — 1830  to 
1840 — saw  many  hard  conflicts  and  much  bloodshed,  some  pf 
it,  at  least,  entirely  unnecessary.  The  whites  came  with  the 
firm  belief  that  every  native  was  an  enemy,  and  they  some- 
times took  the  precaution  to  shoot  first  and  apologise,  if  at 
all,  afterwards. 

Trappers  and  traders  were  now  operating  over  all  the 
Wilderness  excepting  the  portion  which  at  present  forms  the 
central  part  of  the  State  of  Nevada.  As  yet  this  had  not 
been  traversed  by  any  but  Jedediah  Smith  for  it  was  generally 
barren  and  streamless,  with  no  beaver.  Of  course,  much  of 
the  remainder  was  still  unexplored,  yet  the  general  character 
was  understood.  'Books  on  the  fur  trade  are  apt  to  give  so  \ 
little  account  of  the  trapping  operations  in  the  South-west  that 
the  reader  obtains  the  impression  that  there  was  nothing  done 
there,  but  while  no  large  company  operated,  bands  of  trappers 
for  years  ranged  the  Gila  and  its  tributaries,  the  lower  Colo- 
rado, the  Virgin,  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Sevier,  and  other  streams 
in  the  south-western  country  where  beaver  abounded  and  where 
some  rich  hauls  were  made,  sometimes  to  be  confiscated  by  the 
Mexican  officials  or  lost  through  the  difficulties  of  travel  in  7 
that  country. 


•  270  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

William  Wolfskill  and  a  party  of  trappers  in  1830  opened  a 
route  to  California,  going  north  from  Santa  Fe  across  the  head 
of  the  San  Juan,  across  Grand  River,  and  Green  River,  the 
latter  in  what  is  now  Gunnison  Valley,  thence  across  the 
Wasatch  to  the  western  base,  and  south  along  that  through 
Mountain  Meadows  and  across  the  Beaver  Dam  mountains. 
Thence  it  followed  down  the  Virgin  River  almost  to  the  Colo- 
rado, where  it  struck  across  the  desert  to  Los  Angeles.  For 
many  years  afterwards  this  was  used  and  in  time  came  to  be 
known  as  "the  Old  Spanish  Trail."  I  have  never  been  able 
to  understand  why  this  northern  route  was  taken  when  a  much 
easier  one  existed  by  way  of  Zuiii  and  the  Moki  region.  To 
go  north  at  all  necessitated  going  as  far  as  Gunnison  Valley  on 
account  of  the  deep  canyons.  The  advantage  of  the  mount- 
ains was  certain  water  and  wood  and  grass,  but  this  advan- 
tage was  offset  by  the  southern  Nevada  region  which  is  as 
barren  as  anything  in  Arizona,  and  in  the  latter  country  the 
Colorado  Plateau  with  its  magnificent  forest  would  have 
afforded  a  beautiful  resting-place.  Wolfskill  afterwards  settled 
at  Los  Angeles  and  planted  a  vineyard  which  became  famous. 
Bell  ^  says  he  was  a  hero  :  "  A  man  of  indomitable  will,  industry, 
and  self-denial;  an  American  pioneer  hero;  one  who  succeeds 
in  all  he  undertakes,  and  is  always  to  be  trusted.  He  died  in 
1866,  leaving  a  very  large  fortune." 

The  trappers  and  traders  who  entered  the  field  in  this  fourth 
decade  of  the  century  were  so  numerous  that  a  very  large 
volume  would  be  required  to  even  sketch  over  their  exploits. 
There  was  one,  however,  who,  because  of  his  connection  with 
the  army  and  of  his  extensive  though  not  financially  successful 
operations,  must  ever  be  prominently  identified  with  this  par- 
ticular epoch  in  the  breaking  of  the  Wilderness.  This  was 
Bonneville,  a  captain  in  the  American  Army  who  had  leave  of 
absence  to  conduct  a  fur-trading  venture.  Chittenden''  is 
rather  severe  on  the  genial  captain,  and  says:  "After  all  it 

'  Reminiscences  of  a  Ranger. 

'^History  of  the  American  Fur  Trade — an  admirable  work.  He  criticises 
Bancroft  for  speaking  of  Irving's  book  as  The  Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville^ 
but  this  was  the  title  of  the  edition  of  1S49. 


Bonneville 


271 


will  not  be  far  wrong  to  say  that  the  greatest  service  which 
Captain  Bonneville  rendered  his  country  was  by  falling  into 
the  hands  of  Wasliington  Irving."  Unquestionably  Irving 
made  the  exploits  of  Bonneville  tell  to  their  full  value,  yet 
while  admitting  that  Bonneville  was  not  scientific,  that  he  im- 
properly overstayed 
his  leave,  and  per- 
haps even  more,  he 
remains  nevertheless 
an  extraordinary  fig- 
ure in  the  breaking 
of  the  Wilderness, 
and  he  punctuated 
the  explorations  of  a 
long  period  together 
with  other  striking 
characters  like  Ash- 
ley and  Fremont. 
As  Lewis  and  Clark 
gave  the  seal  to  the 
first  decade  of  the 
century  in  this  field, 
Lisa  to  the  second, 
Ashley  to  the  third, 
so  Bonneville  gave  it 
to  the  fourth,  and 
Fremont  to  the  fifth. 
Irving's  brilliant  nar- 
rative may  have  done  much  to  distinguish  Bonneville,  and 
place  his  name  ahead  of  Sublette,  Fitzpatrick,  and  others  as 
a  dominating  note,  but  that  does  not  detract  from  his  skill  at 
manoeuvring  in  the  Wilderness.     Chittenden  further  says: 


Captain  Bonneville, 

A  General  when  this  was  taken,  long  after  his  trapping 
career.     Photograph  from  Montana  Historical  Society. 


"As  the  manager  of  an  expedition  and  as  a  popular  leader 
Bonneville  was  a  distinct  success.  Had  his  function  been  that  of 
conducting  a  party  through  the  country,  he  might  have  rivalled 
Lewis  and  Clark  in  the  skill  with  which  he  could  accomplish  it.  He 
managed  his  men  with  great  judgment,     .     ,     ,     he  remained  three 


2  72  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

years  in  the  mountains  without  the  loss  of  a  single  life  where  the 
men  were  in  any  wise  under  his  personal  control." 

It  is  rather  unfortunate  that  he  did  not  make  exploration  the 
basis  of  his  operations. 

Benjamin  Louis  Eulalie  de  Bonneville  was  of  French  birth 
and  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1819  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
three.  His  family  and  La  Fayette  were  friends,  and  the  Gen- 
eral took  young  Bonneville  back  to  France,  where  he  lived  in 
the  La  Fayette  household  for  several  years.  On  returning  to 
the  United  States  he  was  assigned  to  duty  on  the  frontier  and 
there  conceived  the  idea  of  getting  rich  in  the  fur  business. 
Granted  leave  of  absence  from  August,  1831,  till  October, 
1833,  h^  organised  an  expedition  with  the  aid  of  Alfred  Seton, 
who  had  been  at  Astoria  when  that  enterprise  as  an  American 
venture  went  to  pieces,  but  whose  faith  in  the  fur  trade  was 
nevertheless  very  great.  He  and  his  associates  provided  the 
funds  and  Bonneville  was  able  to  start  in  May,  1832,  some 
eight  months  of  his  leave  already  gone.  He  had  no  men  and 
twenty  waggons  drawn  by  horses  and  mules.  His  chief  assist- 
ants were  Walker  and  Cerr^,  both  well-known  mountain  men 
of  great  experience.  Both  had  been  among  the  earliest  to 
cross  to  Santa  Fe. 

Bonneville's  waggons  were  not  the  first  to  enter  the  great 
Wilderness.  Becknell  used  waggons  on  the  Santa  F6  route  at 
least  seven  years  earlier.  Ashley  took  his  wheeled  cannon  to 
Utah  Lake  in  1826,  and  Sublette  and  Company  had  already 
taken  waggons  to  Wind  River.  Bonneville  was  the  first  to 
take  them  to  Green  River. 

His  route  was  up  the  Platte  and  the  Sweetwater  branch, 
over  South  Pass  to  Green  River  Valley,  preserving  military 
discipline  all  the  way  and  meeting  with  no  serious  difficulty. 
Five  miles  above  Horse  Creek  on  Green  River  he  built  his  first 
trading  fort  of  the  common  pattern,  a  square  stockade  with 
bastions  at  diagonal  corners.  Little  use  was  made  of  it  and  it 
.soon  acquired  the  title  of  Fort  Nonsense. 

The  competition  for  furs  was  rapidly  growing  more  intense, 
for  the  hundreds  of  skilful  trappers  who  had  now  been  ranging 


Wyeth  273 

the  beaver  grounds  for  a  decade  or  more  had  perceptibly 
thinned  them  down.  Each  company  therefore  threw  every 
possible  obstacle  in  the  way  of  newcomers,  as  well  as  of  their 
older  rivals.  Bonneville  felt  the  effects  of  this  condition. 
Some  traders  also  had  their  native  clients  under  such  control 
that  they  would  not  deal  with  any  one  else.  Bonneville  once 
thought  he  could  drive  a  trade  with  a  tribe  where  their  British 
visitor  was  short  of  goods,  but  they  would  not  deal  with  him 
at  all. 

Another  man  whose  name  is  prominent  at  this  time  was 
Nathaniel  J.  Wyeth  of  Boston,  a  man  of  fine  character  and 
hopeful  disposition,  but  with  no  experience  in  Wilderness  life. 
All  of  his  men  were  likewise  innocent  of  frontier  knowledge. 
Before  leaving  Boston  they  had  attracted  much  attention  by 
camping  on  an  island  in  order  to  harden  themselves  for  the 
Wilderness!  At  Independence,  Missouri,  he  was  fortunate 
enough  to  fall  in  with  William  Sublette  and  Robert  Campbell, 
who  were  taking  a  train  of  supplies  out  to  the  rendezvous. 
Wyeth  therefore  travelled  with  them.  He  now  had  eighteen 
men,  six  having  given  up  at  Independence.  He  had  provided 
himself  with  waggons  which  could  be  converted  into  boats, 
but  at  St.  Louis,  understanding  that  waggons  could  not  be 
used,  he  sold  them  and  took  to  packs.  He  reached  Pierre's 
Hole  July  8,  1832,  while  Bonneville  came  to  Green  River  on 
the  27th  of  the  same  month,  Wyeth  having  passed  him  on 
the  way. 

Wyeth  was  desirous  of  reaching  the  Pacific  coast  early  and 
did  not  linger  anywhere.  He,  with  the  Sublette  party,  had 
had  a  slight  brush  with  natives  on  Green  River.  In  Pierre's 
Hole  they  were  to  add  to  that  experience.  A  band  of  Black- 
feet  having  been  treacherously  fired  on  by  the  whites,  war 
began  and  all  the  trappers  turned  out  to  take  part  in  it.  The 
battle  was  to  the  advantage  of  the  whites,  who  were  the  larger 
force  and  were  armed  with  guns  while  the  Amerinds  had 
mostly  bows.  In  the  night  the  Blackfeet  made  their  escape, 
and  this  battle  of  Pierre's  Hole,  about  which  much  has  been 
written,  was  over.  It  was  enough  for  seven  of  Wyeth's  men, 
who  now  determined  to  return  to  civilisation.     They  started 


274 


Breaking  the  W  ilderness 


back  and  five  days  later,  in  Jackson's  Hole,  were  attacked  by 
a  band  of  Blackfeet.  One  of  the  men,  More,  became  demoral- 
ised with  fright  and  stood  still  till  the  enemy  came  and  killed 

him.  Two  others,  Foy 
and  Stephens,  trying  to 
get  to  More,  were  also 
shot,  Foy  dying  on  the 
spot  and  Stephens  sev- 
eral days  later.  The 
others  succeeded  in 
reaching  the  camp  of 
Milton  Sublette,  who 
had  been  shot  in  the 
shoulder  in  the  Pierre's 
Hole  affair.  As  soon  as 
he  felt  able  to  travel  he 
started  with  Campbell 
for  St.  Louis,  and  Wy- 
eth's  men  accompanied 
them.  They  met  with 
no  further  difficulty. 
The  Blackfeet  all  fell 
back  into  Green  River 
Valley,  but  did  not  mo- 
lest Bonneville. 

The  Captain  pre- 
sently decided  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  head  of 
Salmon  River  to  pitch 
his  winter  camp.  Here 
among  the  friendly  Nez 
Perces  he  and  his  fol- 
lowers passed  a  pleasant  season.  Parties  were  sent  in  various 
directions,  and  in  the  spring  Bonneville  went  out  on  the  plains 
of  Snake  River.  On  the  13th  of  July,  1833,  he  was  back  again 
in  Green  River  Valley,  and  here  he  met  the  bands  of  trappers 
he  had  sent  out  the  previous  autumn.  Their  success  had  been 
small.     The  valley  was  lively  with  the  returning  trappers,  not 


"  Did  Faithful 

From  Wonderland, 


Gej .  one  Park. 

)oi — Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


Mad  Wolves  275 

only  of  Bonneville,  but  of  the  American  Fur  Company  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company,  both  having  rendezvous  three 
or  four  miles  from  Bonneville.  The  intercourse  of  the  various 
camps  was  friendly  and  agreeable  and.  the  valley  was  for  two 
or  three  months,  during  the  off  season  of  trapping,  a  very  gay 
place. 

There  was  no  danger  of  a  hostile  tribe  attacking  so  large  a 
body  of  whites,  hence  life  at  the  time  of  the  rendezvous  was 
free  from  this  fear.  Another  unusual  and  singular  one  came 
up  however.  A  mad  wolf  entered  one  of  the  camps  and  bit 
several,  some  of  whom  died  of  hydrophobia.  Mad  wolves  are 
rare,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  of  their  occurrence.  In 
recent  years  the  young  son  of  a  man  in  southern  Utah,  while 
camping  out  with  another  boy,  was  bitten  in  the  night  by  one 
of  these  animals,  and  shortly  afterwards  died  in  great  agony. 

Wyeth  had  travelled  down  Snake  River,  across  the  Blue 
Mountains,  and  then  down  the  Columbia  to  Fort  Vancouver, 
making  the  first  continuous  trip  on  record  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  and  the  record  trip  was  all  that  he  had  to  show 
for  his  investment  and  his  exertions.  Then  he  turned  round, 
heading  once  more  for  Boston,  to  form  a  company  for  the 
prosecution  of  the  salmon  fishing.  He  was  a  man  of  elastic 
hopes,  and  prepared  to  go  again  to  the  Pacific. 

Bonneville,  meanwhile,  seemed  not  to  notice  that  it  was 
about  time  for  him  either  to  return  to  his  post  or  to  apply  for 
an  extension  of  his  leave.  He  ignored  the  situation  entirely. 
His  packs  of  furs  were  sent  east,  but  the  Captain  sent  no  word 
to  headquarters,  and  on  his  own  responsibility  remained  a 
trapper  in  the  Wilderness. 


CHAPTER   XV 

Bonneville  Dropped  from  the  Army  —  Indian  Shooters  —  The  Mythical  Rio 
Buenaventura — Bonneville  Twice  to  the  Columbia — Wyeth  Again — The  Ore- 
gon Trail — The  Big  Thunder  Canoe — A  Wilderness  Whiskey  Still — Mission- 
aries to  Oregon — The  North-West  Boundary  Settlement — Decline  of  the 
Beaver — Through  the  Canyon  of  Lodore  on  the  Ice — Fremont,  the  Scientific 
Pathfinder — The  Spanish  Sentinel  Turned  to  the  Wall — Fortune's  Blindfold. 


AFTER  forwarding  his  meagre  collection  of  furs,  Bonneville 
prepared  to  try  his  luck  in  the  Wilderness  once  more. 
Although  his  orders  were  to  avail  himself  of  every  opportunity 
of  informing  the  War  Department  of  his  position  and  progress, 
he  gave  this  matter  no  attention  whatever,  and  without  an 
extension  of  leave  plunged  into  another  year's  trapping  and 
trading  as  lightly  as  if  army  orders  and  obligations  had  no 
existence.  His  furlough  he  had  obtained  ostensibly  for  ex- 
ploration, but,  of  course,  it  is  clear,  his  real  object  was  the  fur 
trade;  exploration  was  not  even  a  secondary  consideration. 
Had  he  met  with  Ashley's  success  he  might  have  ignored  the 
War  Department  entirely.  As  it  was,  he  ignored  it  for  the 
time  being,  and  making  no  report,  he  was  dropped  from 
the  rolls. 

Meanwhile,  some  of  his  plans  were  being  executed  and 
there  was  prospect   of  a  good   harvest.     He  sent  one  large 
party  under  his  first  assistant  Walker,  to  California,  though 
the  Captain  afterwards  claimed  the  great  object  of  this  expe-' 
dition  was  the  exploration  of  Salt  Lake,  upon  which  he  said 

276 


The  Forty  Thieves 


277 


his  heart  had  been  set.  Walker  has  consequently  been  se- 
verely censured  for  disobeying  his  instructions,  but  Chittenden 
declares  the  Salt  Lake  project  was  an  afterthought,  and  he 
seems  to  be  right.  "If  this  ambitious  explorer  [Bonneville] 
were  really  so  absorbed  in  his  desire  to  learn  all  about  the  great 
Salt  Lake,  how  happened  it  that  he  remained  three  years  in 
the  country  and  passed  repeatedly 
within  fifty  or  a  hundred  miles  of  the 
lake  but  never  went  to  see  it?"  he 
inquires.  Salt  Lake  was  then  well 
known,  it  was  easy  to  reach,  and 
there  was  absolutely  no  reason  why 
Bonneville  himself  should  not  have 
gone  there  and  explored  it  if  he  really 
had  its  examination  at  heart.  The 
conclusion  is  inevitable  that  at  the 
time  he  did  not  consider  it  a  matter 
of  great  importance;  yet  he  may  have 
intended  Walker  to  explore  it  on  the 
way  to  California. 

At  any  rate.  Walker,  with  his  forty 
men,  started  July  24,  1833,  and,  after 
suffering  somewhat  from  thirst  in  the 
region  west  of  the  lake,  abandoned  it 
for  pastures  new,  and  falling  upon  the 
head  of  Mary's,  or  Ogden's,  River, 
now  the  Humboldt,  of  which  he  must 
of  course  have  had  some  previous  in- 
formation, he  followed  its  more  invit- 
ing valley,  and  there  pursued  a  career  toward  California  which 
emulated  the  Forty  Thieves  in  the  stirring  story  of  AH  Baba. 
They  were  in  the  country  of  the  "Shoshokoes,"  some  of  whom 
took  the  liberty  of  appropriating  certain  traps.  One  trapper 
who  so  suffered,  declared  he  would  kill  the  first  native  he  saw, 
innocent  or  guilty.  He  soon  came  upon  two  who  were  fishing 
and  instantly  shot  one  and  threw  the  body  into  the  river. 
This  crime  naturally  caused  the  party  to  feel  that  they  might 
expect  retaliation,  and  hence  when  a  few  days  later  they  saw  a 


Elk  in  Winter. 

From  Wonderland — Northern 

Pacific  Railway. 


278  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

large  body  of  the  natives  around  them,  they  believed  a  battle 
was  at  hand.  Thirty-two  of  Walker's  men  thereupon  sur- 
rounded about  eighty  of  the  supposed  enemy  and  shot  them 
mercilessly  down,  leaving  thirty-nine  dead  on  the  field.  "The 
remainder,"  says  Leonard,  who  was  one  of  the  shooters,  "were 
overwhelmed  with  dismay ,,running  into  the  high  grass  in  every 
direction,  howling  in  the  most  lamentable  manner."  Far- 
ther on,  Nidiver,  another  of  the  trappers,  noticing  two  natives 
running  accidentally  towards  him  and  away  from  Walker, 
supposed  they  had  committed  some  crime,  and  shot  both  with 
one  ball. 

Such  was  the  mad  progress  of  this  triumphal  band.  Similar 
work  was  being  accomplished  in  other  directions.  It  was  about 
this  time  that  the  afterwards  famous  mountain  man  Joe  Meek 
came  to  the  Wilderness.  One  day  he  shot  a  "Digger"  who 
was  prowling  about  a  stream  where  Meek  had  some  traps. 
Wyeth,  who  was  with  the  party,  asked  why  he  had  shot  the 
man. 

"To  keep  him  from  stealing  traps,"  replied  Meek. 

"Had  he  stolen  any?"  inquired  Wyeth. 

"No,"  said  Meek,  "but  he  looked  as  if  he  war  going  to." 

There  were  some  men  who  seemed  to  take  pleasure  in 
shooting  natives  without  any  reason.  Captain  Bidweir  called 
these  "Indian  shooters."  "One  of  the  Indian  shooters,"  he 
writes,  "seeing  an  Indian  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river 
swam  over,  carrying  a  butcher  knife  in  his  mouth. 
The  Indian  ran.  The  man  with  the  knife  crippled  him  with  a 
stone  and  then  killed  him.  .  .  .  Another  Indian  followed 
later.  One  of  the  Indian  killers  hid  and  shot  him."  Another 
time  a  man  missed  his  bridle.  He  swore  an  Indian  had  stolen 
it.  "He  fired  at  an  Indian  who  stood  by  a  tree  one  hundred 
yards  or  so  distant.  The  Indian  fell  back  into  the  brush  and 
the  other  Indians  in  sight  fled  in  terror."  The  bridle  was 
found  later  under  some  blankets  in  camp. 

Walker  passed  the  sink  of  the  Humboldt  and  then  struck 
into  the  Sierra  Nevada.     It  took  twenty-three  days  to  cross 

'  Early  California  Reminiscences,  by  General  John  Bidwell,  in  Out  West  Maga- 
zine, March,  1904,  p.  286. 


28o  Breakine  the  Wilderness 


^5 


and  they  suffered  for  food,  seventeen  horses  being  used  up  for 
this  purpose  and  seventeen  others  being  absolutely  lost.  There 
was  no  game  and  they  finally  were  reduced  to  almost  nothing 
and  were  glad  to  get  a  basket  of  acorns  which  a  frightened 
native  dropped.  Arriving  at  last  on  the  western  edge  they 
met  with  rocks  so  steep  that  it  was  with  difficulty  they  were 
able  to  descend.  Here  they  killed  three  deer  and  a  bear  and 
began  to  find  a  less  inhospitable  region,  although  at  one  place 
they  were  obliged  to  lower  the  horses  by  ropes  over  a  long 
slope  of  loose  rocks.  On  October  30,  1833,  they  reached 
the  foot  of  the  range  and  appear  to  have  passed  through  the 
now  famous  Yosemite  Valley,  perhaps  the  first  white  men  to 
enter  it. 

They  were  soon  in  Monterey  where  they  found  the  people 
so  agreeable  that  they  had  the  joUiest  kind  of  a  winter.  The 
season  passed,  however,  and  the  time  to  go  back  came.  Re- 
luctantly they  started  in  February,  1834,  went  up  the  San 
Joaquin  valley  with  native  guides,  and  crossed  the  Sierra  at  a 
more  southern  point  than  the  outward  passage;  by  Sonora 
Pass,  Chittenden  believes,  and  he  is  doubtless  correct.  Then 
they  worked  north-east  till  they  came  tp  their  outward  trail. 
On  the  way  they  had  further  amusement  killing  natives,  whom 
they  hunted  down  as  a  species  of  rare  game.  Several  Mexicans 
in  this  sport  exhibited  their  skill  at  horsemanship  and  lassoing 
by  charging  at  full  speed  and  throwing  the  rope  over  the  necks 
of  the  terrified  runners.  The  noose  tightening,  the  victims 
were  dragged  and  strangled  to  death.  Some  of  the  men  joined 
a  party  under  a  trapper  named  Fraeb,  who  hunted  in  the 
mountains  of  what  is  now  Colorado,  and  they  ranged  from 
the  Gila  to  North  and  Middle  Parks.  Walker  went  to  the 
rendezvous  on  Bear  River  to  settle  his  affairs  with  Bonneville. 

Walker  had  made  a  trip  similar  to  Jedediah  Smith's,  but 
with  a  smaller  circuit,  and  it  was  now  certain  that  the  river 
Buenaventura,  which  heretofore  had  been  vaguely  supposed 
to  flow  from  Salt  Lake  or  from  near  it,  to  the  Pacific,  was  a 
myth.  Bonneville,  in  a  letter  written  long  afterwards,  claims 
this  as  one  of  the  great  results  geographically  of  his  expedition, 
yet  he  condemns  Walker  for  not  having  explored  Salt  Lake,  a 


Bucking  the  Blue  Mountains  281 

much   easier  task  and  one  which,    to   a   certain   extent,    had 
aheady  been  accomplished  though  not  placed  on  record. 

Captain  Bonneville  himself,  when  he  had  arranged  his  per- 
manent camp  the  previous  autumn  on  the  Portneuf,  a  branch 
of  the  Snake  in  south-eastern  Idaho,  set  out  December  25,  1833, 
with  only  three  companions  to  visit  the  Columbia  River  region. 
Crossing  the  barren  valley  of  Snake  River  about  on  the  route 
which  by  this  time  may  be  called  the  usual  one,  for  besides 
Hunt  and  Stuart,  and  recently  Wyeth,  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany men  often  passed  that  way — the  Oregon  Trail  in  fact, — 
through  a  thick  layer  of  snow,  he  arrived  at  last,  without  any 
unpleasant  encounter  with  the  bands  of  Amerinds  he  met,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Grande  Ronde,  on  the  eastern  foot  of  the 
splendid  Blue  Mountains.  This  fair  basin  was  free  from  snow, 
and  was  obviously  the  place  from  which  to  make  an  extensive 
and  thorough  reconnaissance  before  attempting  to  cross  the 
Blue  range,  whose  mighty  summits  lay  between  him  and  the 
Columbia.  But  instead  of  doing  this  Bonneville  wandered  on 
and  presently  was  back  on  Snake  River  amid  a  wild  array  of 
rocks  and  canyons,  where,  after  desperate  ventures,  he  was 
forced  to  fall  back.  He  tried  to  surmount  the  range  and 
failed.  Farther  back  they  tried  again  and  butted  their  way 
across  with  the  usual  starvation  and  fatigue  incident  to  ad- 
vancing without  proper  investigation.  At  last  they  floundered 
down  to  a  tributary  of  the  Snake  where  a  solitary  Nez  Perce 
was  encountered  who  speedily  led  them  to  the  camp  of  his 
friendly  tribe.  Here  their  troubles  for  the  moment  were  over, 
and  Bonneville  gained  the  chief's  high  favour  by  curing  his 
daughter  of  an  illness  by  means  of  a  dose  of  gunpowder  dis- 
solved in  water.  On  March  4th  they  reached  the  Columbia  at 
Fort  Walla  Walla,  a  post  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  which, 
in  the  Columbia  River  region,  had  entire  control  of  the  trade, 
as  Bonneville,  as  well  as  Wyeth,  soon  discovered.  Pambrune, 
the  agent,  was  cordial  and  treated  them  well  as  long  as  they 
were  in  a  measure  his  guests,  but  when  they  wanted  provisions 
with  which  to  return  he  declined  to  sell  any,  on  the  ground 
that  it  was  not  fair  to  his  company  to  encourage  competing 
traders. 


k: 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


He  advised  them  to  return  in  company  with  one  of  his  men 
about  to  cross  the  Blue  range  by  the  regular  trail  on  a  visit  to 
the  upper  tribes  of  the  Nez  Perces,  but  Bonneville  declined  and 
once  more  butted  his  way  haphazard  across  the  great  ridges, 
arriving  at  last  on  the  Snake  after  much  unnecessary  privation. 
At  one  point  a  horse  approached  too  near  an  icy  precipice, 
and  sliding  down  more  than  two  thousand  feet  was  literally 


A  Wilderness  Waggon  Road, 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


dashed  to  pieces,  as  they  found  on  going  to  the  spot  to  secure 
the  carcass  for  food.  By  May  12,  1834,  he  was  again  at  the 
Portneuf,  where  he  found  his  camp  removed  to  the  Blackfoot 
River  not  far  away. 

Not  satisfied  with  this  trip  to  the  Columbia,  Bonneville 
again  started  for  that  river  on  July  3,  1834,  with  twenty-three 
Tnen.  He  had  not  been  on  the  way  a  week,  before  he  received 
word  that  the  indefatigable  Wyeth  was  at  his  heels,  also  bound 
for  the  lower  Columbia.  About  the  same  time  a  Hudson  Bay 
Company  party  appeared,  so  the  prospects  for  company  were 


Wyeth  Vanquished  2S3 

too  good  to  suit  the  objects  of  the  Captain.  The  Oregon 
Trail  was  rapidly  becoming  popular  in  spite  of  its  hardships, 
and  perhaps  Wyeth's  enthusiasm  did  as  much  as  any  other 
single  factor  to  advertise  this  great  road  to  the  Oregon  country. 

Wyeth  was  again  on  his  way  to  put  into  execution  his  vast 
scheme  to  combine  fur  trading  with  salmon  fishing,  for  the 
benefit  of  his  "Columbia  River  Fishing  and  Trading  Com- 
pany." He  had  with  him  sixty  men,  veterans  of  the  mount- 
ains many  of  them,  and  two  naturalists,  Thomas  Nuttall,  the 
same  who  had  gone  up  the  Missouri  with  Hunt,  and  J.  K. 
Townshend,  an  ornithologist.  There  were  also  several  mis- 
sionaries under  Jason  and  Daniel  Lee.  Wyeth  had  made  a 
contract  the  previous  year  to  bring  out  a  quantity  of  goods  for 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Company,  but  the  managers  repudiated 
their  obligation.  When  he  arrived  on  the  Portneuf  he  built  a 
trading-post  to  utilise  these  goods,  and  called  it  Fort  Hall. 
A  flag,  made  of  unbleached  sheeting,  red  flannel,  and  some 
blue  patches,  was  raised  above  the  fort,  and  twelve  men  well 
armed  were  installed  there.  Wyeth  reached  the  Columbia  in 
good  order,  and  there  made  another  post  on  Wapatoo  Island, 
but  though  his  ideas  were  practical  and  deserved  success,  he 
met  with  disasters  and  the  Hudson  Bay  people  had  such  com- 
plete control  of  the  whole  Oregon  country  that,  while  his  per- 
sonal relations  with  them  were  cordial,  he  finally  gave  up,  sold 
out,  and  returned  to  Fort  Hall,  which  he  also  sold  to  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.  Thence  by  way  of  Taos  and  the 
Arkansas,  he  went  back  to  Boston,  arriving  home  in  the  autumn 
of  1836.  He  had  conducted  all  his  affairs  with  admirable  skill, 
intelligence,  and  perseverance,  but  in  business  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  was  a  rock,  and  he  was  crushed  against  it. 

Bonneville  went  on  down  the  Snake  and  over  the  Blue 
range  to  Fort  Walla  Walla,  being  much  impeded  in  the  mount- 
ains by  a  vast  conflagration  which  made  the  air  dark  with 
smoke  and  added  a  new  danger  to  the  difficulties  of  the  great 
mountains  in  his  path.  But  his  efforts  to  start  trade  on  the 
Columbia  were  foredoomed  to  failure  by  the  power  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.  This  company  had  revived  old  As- 
toria in  1830,  they  had  Fort  Vancouver,  Fort  Walla  Walla, 


284  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

and  others,  covering  every  branch  of  the  trade,  and  the  natives 
were  loyal.  Bonneville  found  it  impossible  to  buy  anywhere 
the  simplest  articles  or  food  of  any  kind.  The  Hudson  Bay 
Company  was  tolerably  fair  and  just  with  the  Amerind  and  he 
appreciated  this  kind  of  treatment.  At  Fort  Walla  Walla 
Bonneville's  effort  to  buy  food  met  with  the  same  repulse  from 
the  manager  as  on  the  former  occasion.  He  therefore  could 
but  retrace  his  steps  to  Bear  River  Valley  where  he  passed  the 
*  winter  of  1834-35. 

In  the  summer  of  1835  he  met  his  parties  on  Wind  River 
and,  adjusting  the  accounts,  started  for  the  settlements,  where 
he  arrived  on  August  22d,  his  great  enterprise  over  with  very 
meagre  results  to  show.  As  a  trading  venture  it  was  a  dire 
failure.  As  a  geographical  exploration  it  had  little  that  was 
new  to  present.  The  maps  Bonneville  made  were  partly  copied 
from  Gallatin  and  others.  Yet  when  all  that  is  against  him  is 
admitted,  he  remains  a  dominating  figure  of  the  time,  a  high 
light  in  the  picture  of  breaking  the  Wilderness.  His  name, 
which  he  applied  to  Salt  Lake,  has  by  geologists  been  given, 
as  mentioned,  to  the  ancient  sea  which  once  lashed  the  Rocky 
Mountains  with  its  waves,  so  that  in  geology,  in  geography,  in 
history,  and  in  literature,  it  is  permanently  fixed. 

"As  a  soldier  by  education  and  profession,"  says  Chitten- 
den, "Captain  Bonneville  committed  an  unpardonable  breach 
of  discipline  in  overstaying  his  leave  of  absence.  It  was  more 
than  a  simple  lapse  of  duty,  it  was  an  act  of  ingratitude  to  his 
superiors,  considering  their  great  indulgence  in  granting  him 
so  long  a  leave."  By  special  order  of  President  Jackson  he 
was  finally  reinstated.  He  served  in  the  Seminole  and  in  the 
Mexican  wars  and  was  made  Brevet  Brigadier-General.  He 
bought  a  farm  at  Fort  Smith,  Arkansas,  and  there,  after  1865, 
ended  his  days,  dying  June  12,  1878,  at  the  ripe  age  of  eighty- 
two. 

The  year  after  Bonneville  went  out  to  the  mountains  (1833), 
a  distinguished  foreigner,  Maximilian,  Prince  of  Wied,  made 
the  journey  up  the  Missouri'  with  Kenneth  McKenzie,  on  the 

^  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  North  America,  by  Maximilian,  Prince  of  Wied, 
translated  from  the  German  by  H.  Evans  Lloyd. 


Steamboat  to  the  Yellowstone 


285 


steamboat  Yelloivstone  to  Fort  Pierre  and  thence  to  Fort  Union 
on  the  new  Assiniboine.  The  Yellowstone  was  a  boat  with  the 
distinction  of  having  been  the  first  steamboat  to  go  above  Coun- 
cil Bluffs.  In  1 83 1  she  was  taken  to  Fort  Tecumseh,  a  little 
above  where  Pierre,  South  Dakota,  now  stands"  (named  from 
Fort  Pierre,  which  was  named  for  Pierre  Chouteau,  Jr.),  and  in 
1832  went  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone.     On  board 


steamer  "  Yellowstone  "  Ascending  the  Missouri  in  1833. 

From  Travels,  etc.,  1832-3-4,  by  Maximilian,  Prince  of  Wied,  1843. 
From  Wonderland,  1904 — Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


at  this  time  was  Catlin,  the  artist  whose  paintings  of  Amerinds 
and  whose  extensive  travels  through  the  Wilderness  have  madfe^ 
him  forever  famous.*  The  natives  called  the  boat  the  "Big 
Thunder  Canoe,"  and  the  "Big  Medicine  Canoe  with  Eyes." 
It  was  an  object  of  wonder  with  them  for  a  time,  but  they  soon 
accepted  in  a  matter-of-fact  way  the  new  things  the  whites 
brought  to  them.     The  steamboat  on  the  Missouri  was  a  great 

'  See  Catlin's  Eight  Years. 


28o  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

boon  to  the  traders  and  fur  companies  as  it  enabled  goods  to 
be"  taken  into  the  North-west  with  far  greater  ease  and  conse- 
quently at  less  price.  There  was  much  rivalry  among  the 
companies  as  heretofore.  New  ones  were  formed  and  the 
competition  was  great.  All  sorts  of  methods  were  adopted, 
many  of  them  questionable,  often  dishonourable,  to  secure 
advantage.  As  whiskey  was  prohibited  by  the  Government, 
and  a  rigid  examination  was  made  of  every  ascending  boat, 
there  were  many  schemes  for  smuggling  it;  for  every  trader 
used  it,  if  he  could,  in  his  dealings  with  the  natives.  It  was 
the  most  profitable  medium  of  exchange,  and  by  means  of  it 
a  tribe  could  be  literally  skinned  for  a  song.  The  traders  were 
there  to  take  every  advantage  of  the  natives,  and,  except  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  they  hesitated  at  nothing  that  would 
bring  them  money.  They  would  have  been  perfectly  willing 
to  exterminate  the  whole  Amerind  population  in  twenty-four 
hours  if  they  could  have  done  it  with  great  profit.  In  other 
words,  their  sole  care  was  to  fleece  the  native  for  a  company's 
benefit.  The  beaver  by  1835  were  beginning  to  be  alarmingly 
scarce  and  attention  was  turned  more  and  more  to  buffalo 
robes  and  other  furs,  but  there  was  yet  much  money  to  be 
made  in  this  field. 

McKenzie  set  up  a  whiskey  still  at  Fort  Union,  to  get  ahead 
of  the  inspectors.  Ramsay  Crooks,  who  had  long  been  pro- 
minent in  the  American  Fur  Company,  opposed  the  scheme, 
fearing  trouble  with  the  Government,  and  he  was  right,  but  it 
was  put  in  operation.  Wyeth  and  Cerre,  passing  Fort  Union, 
learned  of  it  and  reported  to  the  Government,  and  William 
Clark,  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  who  was  still  superintendent  for 
the  Western  tribes,  was  instructed  to  stop  it.  The  matter  was 
finally  allowed  to  pass  without  punishment,  but  it  came  near" 
bringing  the  American  Fur  Company  to  disaster.  The  per- 
sistence with  which  the  respectable  fur  companies  forced 
whiskey  into  the  Wilderness  and  debauched  the  tribes  there, 
in  spite  of  every  effort  of  the  Government  to  prevent  it,  is  a 
permanent  disgrace  to  these  companies  and  to  their  ifianagers, 
every  one  of  whom,  from  chief  down,  knew  that  the  wealth 
they   were  accumulating   by   it   was    largely    a   swindle,   and 


Missionaries  2S7 

meant  the  impoverishment  and  wrecking  of  the  people  of  the 
Wilderness.  It  was  bad  enough  to  charge  the  poor  natives 
outrageous  prices  for  cheap  articles,  but  deliberately  to  intoxi- 
cate them  for  profit  can  never  be  considered  anything  but 
dishonour  for  every  man,  high  and  low,  who  permitted  it  to  go 
on  without  hindrance  or  protest,  or  who  abetted  it,  and  re- 
ceived the  money  from  such  base  sources. 

Famous  travellers  now  went  for  a  turn  in  the  Wilderness, 
though  most  of  them  contented  themselves  with  the  part  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Among  these  was  Washington 
Irving,  in  1832,  with  several  congenial  spirits,  one  of  whom 
was  Charles  Latrobe,  an  Englishman,  who  wrote  an  interesting 
book.  This  adventure  of  Irving  was  of  value  afterwards 
when  he  came  to  write  Astoria  and  Bonneville,  albeit  it  was 
brief.  He  saw  the  buffalo,  however,  and,  as  described,  ex- 
perienced the  excitement  of  the  chase.  Francis  Parkman,  at  a 
later  time,  followed  Irving's  example,  and  then  gathered  notes 
for  his  Oregon  Trail. 

Various  American  and  English  sportsmen  also  sought  this 
fascinating  field,  but  this  volume  is  too  small  to  record  the 
doings  of  the  great  numbers  who  now  began  to  swarm  into 
the  Wilderness.  Many  of  them  have  written  valuable  books 
which  may  be  found  in  all  good  libraries.' 

The  missionaries  began  to  turn  more  attention  to  the  Oregon 
country,  and  in  1836  Samuel  Parker  was  sent  by  the  Presby- 
terians to  that  region.  He  took  with  him  a  medical  man. 
Doctor  Marcus  Whitman,  and  these  two  were  practically  the 
breakers  of  the  Oregon  Trail  for  the  gentler  side  of  civilisation. 
They  went  out  as  far  as  the  Black  Hills  under  the  guidance  of 
the  veteran  trapper  Fontenelle,  a  man  as  widely  known  as 
Fiizpatrick,  Sublette,  or  any  of  the  other  prominent  mountain 
men  of  the  time.  Fitzpatrick  himself  escorted  them  on  to 
Green  River.  Whitman  was  able  to  give  medical  attention  to 
many  of  those  in  the  Wilderness,  and  he  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  American  doctor,  or  indeed  the  first  doctor  of  any 
nationality,  who  ventured  there.     In  Green  River  Valley  he 

'  In  the  works  of  H.  H.  Bancroft  may  be  found  lists  of  books  on  the  Wilder- 
ness. 


288  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

took  from  the  back  of  Bridger  an  iron  arrow-head,  which  had 
been  there  three  years.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  mount- 
aineers to  do  their  own  surgery.  Sometimes  it  was  success- 
ful, as  in  the  case  of  Pegleg  Smith,  sometimes  the  patient  did 
not  survive  the  camp  operation  more  than  a  day  or  two. 
Sometimes  they  let  "well  enough  alone,"  as  in  Bridger's  case, 
who  allowed  the  arrow-head  to  remain.  No  anaesthetic  was 
thought  of  at  that  time,  and  Whitman  performed  the  opera- 
tion under  the  admiring  gaze  of  a  crowd  of  natives  and  whites, 
while  Bridger  never  winced.  Another  arrow-head  was  taken 
from  under  the  shoulder  of  a  hunter,  where  it  had  been  for 
two  and  a  half  years. 

Whitman  became  so  much  interested  in  the  missionary  side 
of  the  prospective  Oregon  work  that  he  returned  from  Green 
River  to  secure  more  help,  leaving  Parker  to  continue.  Parker 
says  of  the  trappers :  "Their  demoralising  influence  with  the 
Indians  has  been  lamentable,  and  they  have  imposed  upon 
them  in  all  the  ways  that  sinful  propensity  can  dictate.  It  is 
said  they  have  sold  them  packs  of  cards  at  high  prices,  calling 
them  the  Bible." 

Of  the  rendezvous  he  remarks: 

"  These  days  are  the  climax  of  the  hunter's  happiness. 
A  hunter  who  goes  technically  by  the  name  of  the  great  bully  of  the 
mountains  mounted  his  horse  with  a  loaded  rifle  and  challenged 
any  Frenchman,  American,  Spaniard,  or  Dutchman,  to  fight  him  in 
single  combat.  Kit  Carson,  an  American,  told  him  if  he  wished  to 
die  he  would  accept  the  challenge.  Shunar  defied  him.  Carson 
mounted  his  horse  and  with  a  loaded  pistol  rushed  into  close  con- 
tact, and  both  almost  at  the  same  instant  fired.  Carson's  ball 
entered  Shunar's  hand,  came  out  at  the  wrist,  and  passed  through 
the  arm  above  the  elbow.  Shunar's  ball  passed  over  the  head  of 
Carson,  and  while  he  went  for  another  pistol  Shunar  begged  that  his 
life  might  be  spared.  Such  scenes,  sometimes  from  passion  and 
sometimes  for  amusement,  make  the  pastime  of  their  wild  and 
wandering  life." 

Parker  reached  Oregon  safely,  while  Whitman  was  making 
the  eastward  journey.     On  reaching  New  England,  Whitman, 


Whitman  and  Oregon 


289 


who  was  only  thirty-two,  married.  With  his  wife  and  another 
newly  married  couple,  the  Reverend  H.  H.  Spalding  and  wife, 
he  set  out  once  more  for  Oregon,  with  the  settlement  of  which 
his  name  was  now  to  become  forever  associated,  even  to  the 
extent  of  being  called  the  "Saviour  of  Oregon."  '  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  British  Hudson  Bay  Company  still  main- 
tained almost  complete  control  of  the  Oregon  country,  not- 
withstanding the  provision  made  by  the  two  Governments  that 
the  region  was  to  be  free  to  both  nations.     It  was  free  nomi- 


Before  the  Sawmill  Comes. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


nally,  but,  as  has  been  seen  in  the  case  of  Bonneville  and  in 
that  of  Wyeth,  as  well  as  other  Americans,  the  freedom  was  a 
mere  form.  American  trappers  could  pass  through  the  country 
without  direct  molestation,  but  it  was  an  impossibility  for  them 
to  accomplish  anything  there.  As  the  fifth  decade  of  the  cent- 
ury opened,  the  question  of  boundary  so  long  left  in  the  air 
became  pressing.     The  time  set  for  adjustment  had  arrived. 

^  Hou>  Marcus  Whitman  Saved  Oregon^  by  O.  W.  Nixon.  It  is  now  stated 
that  the  importance  ascribed  to  Whitman's  labours  is  exaggerated,  and  that  he  had 
little  to  do  with  "  saving  "  Oregon. 


290  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

It  was  particularly  in  relation  to  this  that  it  is  said  Whitman 
made  a  winter  journey  to  Washington  by  way  of  Santa  Fe  in 
1842-43.  During  his  absence  the  natives  grew  more  insolent. 
Mrs.  Whitman  was  obliged  to  flee  to  the  Methodist  mission  for 
protection.  The  natives  were  also  suspicious  of  the  mission- 
aries: the  latter  often  held  themselves  superior  to  the  trappers 
who  would  have  been  their  best  friends;  and  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  continued  its  opposition  to  American  settlement. 
A  troublous  condition  all  round  was  the  result.  A  horrible 
massacre  by  the  Cayuses  finally  took  place  at  the  Whitman 
mission,  November  28,  1847,  eleven  years  after  the  Doctor 
began  his  enthusiastic  work  for  Oregon.  Doctor  and  Mrs. 
Whitman  with  many  others  were  most  cruelly  murdered, 
some  of  the  chief  crimjnals  being  those  whom  they  had  often 
befriended. 

Doctor  McLoughlin,  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  governor, 
while  refusing  aid  to  Americans,  came  to  have  much  sympathy 
for,  and  was  later  accused  by  the  managers  of  the  great  corpora- 
tion of  having  promoted,  American  settlement.  He  was  even 
charged  an  enormous  sum  as  damages  the  Company  had  suf- 
fered in  consequence  of  the  course  of  action  of  which  he  was 
accused.  He  resigned,  settled  himself  in  Oregon,  and  eventu- 
ally became  an  American  citizen.  The  British  desired  an 
adjustment  of  the  boundary  by  following  the  course  of  the 
Columbia  River,  but  this  was  not  accepted  by  the  United 
States,  and  it  was  not  till  1848  that  the  line  was  placed  per- 
manently where  it  now  is;  a  continuation  of  the  line  on  the 
forty-ninth  parallel,  which  had  been  adopted  east  of  the  mount- 
ains long  before. 

One  of  the  trappers  intimately  connected  with  the  develop- 
ment of  Oregon  was  Joe  Meek,  who  had  ranged  the  Wilder- 
ness for  niany  years.  Pie  was  possessed  of  a  full  share  of  the 
qualities  which  abounded  in  men  like  Jedediah  Smith,  Sub- 
lette, Bridger,  and  others  of  that  type,  and  was  seldom  taken 
unawares.  One  anecdote  will  exhibit  his  temper  and  at  the 
same  time  present  a  picture  of  the  dangerous  circumstances 
which  sometimes  surrounded  such  men  and  over  which  they 
triumphed.     Meek  was  captured  by  a  party  of  Crows  in  the 


Joe  Meek  a  Captive 


291 


Yellowstone  country.  His  captors  numbered  187  men,  nine 
boys,  and  three  women.  Meek  calmly  counted  them  while 
they  were  discussing  his  case.  At  last  the  chief,  called  "The 
Bold,"  said  to  him  :  "  I  have  known  the-whites  for  a  long  time 


The  Great  or  Lower  Fall  of  the  Yellowstone. 

From  Wonderland,  1904. — Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


and  I  know  them  to  be  great  liars,  deserving  death,  but  if  you 
will  tell  the  truth  you  shall  live.  Tell  me  where  are  the  whites 
you  belong  to;  and  what  is  your  captain's  name."  Meek  re- 
plied that  his  captain  was  Bridger,  and  to  an  inquiry  as  to  the 
number  of  men  Bridger  had,  he  answered  forty,  which  was  a 


292  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

lie,  as  Bridger  had  six  times  that  number.  The  Bold  laughed 
and  said:  "We  will  make  them  poor,  and  you  shall  live,  but 
they  shall  die. "  For  four  days  they  travelled  to  attack  Bridger, 
and  Meek  was  forced  to  do  the  menial  work  of  the  camp  under 
the  ridicule  of  the  squaws. 

"On  the  afternoon  of  the  fourth  day,"  he  says,  "the  spies,  who 
war  in  advance,  looking  out  from  a  high  hill,  made  a  sign  to  the 
main  party.  In  a  moment  all  sat  down.  I  war  as  well  up  in  Indian 
signs  as  they  war;  and  I  knew  they  had  discovered  white  men. 
What  war  worse,  I  knew  that  they  would  soon  discover  that  I  had 
been  lying  to  them.  All  I  had  to  do  then  war  to  trust  to  luck. 
Soon  we  came  to  the  top  of  the  hill  which  overlooked  the  Yellow- 
stone, from  which  I  could  see  the  plains  below  extending  as  far  as 
the  eye  could  reach,  and  about  three  miles  off,  the  camp  of  my 
friends.  My  heart  beat  double  quick  about  that  time  and  I  once  in 
a  while  put  my  hand  to  my  head,  to  feel  if  my  scalp  war  thar. 
While  I  war  watching  our  camp,  I  discovered  that  the  horse  guard 
had  seen  us,  for  I  knew  the  sign  he  would  make  if  he  discovered 
Indians.  I  thought  the  camp  a  splendid  sight  that  evening.  It 
made  a  powerful  show  to  me,  who  did  not  expect  ever  to  see  it  after 
that  day.  And  it  war  a  fine  sight  anyhow  from  the  hill  where  I 
stood.  About  two  hundred  and  fifty  men,  and  women  and  children 
in  great  numbers,  and  about  a  thousand  horses  and  mules.  Then 
the  beautiful  plain  and  the  sinking  sun;  and  the  herds  of  buffalo  that 
could  not  be  numbered;  and  the  cedar  hills  covered  with  elk, — I 
never  saw  so  fine  a  sight  as  that  looked  to  me  then!  When  I  turned 
my  eyes  on  that  savage  Crow  band,  and  saw  the  chief  standing  with 
his  hand  on  his  mouth,'  lost  in  amazement,  and  beheld  the  warriors' 
tomahawks  and  spears  glittering  in  the  sun,  my  heart  was  very  little. 
Directly  the  chief  turned  to  me  with  a  horrible  scowl.  Said  he: 
*  I  promised  that  you  should  live  if  you  told  the  truth;  but  you  have 
told  me  a  great  lie.'  Then  the  warriors  gathered  round  with  their 
tomahawks  in  their  hands. ' ' 

Bridger's  horse  guard  now  approached  to  drive  in  the 
horses.  The  Crow  chief  ordered  Meek  to  tell  him  to  come 
up,  but  instead  Meek  shouted  for  him  to  keep  away  and  to  tell 

^  The  method  of  expressing  astonishment  was  to  cover  the  mouth  with  one 
hand. 


A  Game  of  Deceit 


293 


Bridget  to  try  to  treat  with  them.  In  a  little  while  Bridger 
came  on  a  large  white  horse  to  within  three  hundred  yards  and 
asked  for  a  council.  Little  Gun,  the  second  chief,  finally  was 
ordered  to  go  and  smoke  with  Bridger,  while  the  whole  band 
prepared  for  war.  When  Little  Gun  and  Bridger  were  within 
about  a  hundred  yards  of  each  other  they  halted  and  stripped, 


Jim  Bridger  in  his  Latter  Days. 

Photograph  from  Montana  Historical  Society. 


according  to  Crow  rules,  proceeding  the  remaining  distance 
in  a  nude  state,  to  kiss  and  embrace.  Meanwhile  five  of 
Bridger's  men  crept  along  in  a  dry  ravine  and  were  able  to  cut 
off  Little  Gun  from  his  friends.  Now  there  was  a  great  com- 
motion among  the  Crows.  At  this  moment  about  a  hundred 
of  Bridger's  men  came  up  and  he  called  to  Meek  to  propose  an 
exchange  of  himself  for  Little  Gun.     To  this  the  chief  sullenly 


294  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

consented,  remarking  that  he  could  not  afford  to  give  a  chief 
for  one  white  dog's  scalp.  Meek  thereupon  was  allowed  to  go 
toward  his  friends  as  Little  Gun  approached  his,  and  in  a  few 
moments  the  exchange  was  accomplished.  That  same  evening, 
the  head  chief  with  forty  of  his  men  visited  Bridger's  camp  and 
made  a  treaty  of  peace  to  endure  three  months,  in  order  that 
they  might  join  together  to  fight  the  Blackfeet.  They  gave 
Meek  his  mule,  gun,  and  beaver  packs,  and  told  him  his  name 
should  henceforth  be  Shiam  Shaspusia,  as  he  could  outlie  the 
Crows. 

The  growing  scarcity  of  beaver  toward  the  end  of  the 
thirties  threw  many  trappers  out  of  work.  The  fur  companies 
disbanded,  and  the  men  were  left  in  the  mountains  not  know- 
ing what  to  do.  They  therefore  scattered  in  small  bands  in 
search  of  profit  and  adventure.  Meek  was  in  Brown's  Hole 
in  the  winter,  about  this  time,  at  Fort  Davy  Crockett.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  Ashley  had  come  through  Flaming  Gorge, 
etc.,  and  Red  Canyon  from  Green  River  Valley,  and  went  out 
to  Salt  Lake  from  Brown's  Hole.  Meek  joined  a  party  to  go 
down  on  the  ice  through  the  next  canyon,  now  called  Lodore. 
The  entrance  to  this  gorge  is  very  abrupt  and  magnificent,  the 
rocks  rising  suddenly  and  sheer  to  a  height  of  over  two  thou- 
sand feet,  forming  a  monster  gateway  which  can  be  seen  for 
miles  out  in  the  valley.  Into  this  gateway.  Meek  and  his 
companions  entered,  doubtless  the  first  whites  ever  to  go  far 
within  the  solemn  chasm.  He  says  they  travelled  nearly  a 
hundred  miles  down  this  "awful  canyon  without  finding  but 
one  place  where  they  could  have  come  out,  and  left  it  at  last 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Uintee. "  That  is,  they  went  through 
Lodore,  about  twenty-one  miles.  Echo  Park,  one  mile,  Whirl- 
pool Canyon,  about  fifteen  miles.  Island  Park,  nine  miles,  and 
Split  Mountain  Canyon,  eight  miles,  or  in  all  a  distance 
through  canyons  of  about  fifty-four  miles.  The  remainder  of 
their  journey  was  in  the  open  Wonsits  Valley.  The  place 
where  they  thought  they  could  have  come  out  was  Island 
Park,  which  is  a  small  valley  enclosed  on  the  west  only  by 
slopes  of  the  Uintas.  There  are  also  other  places  but  more 
difficult.     About  ten  years  later  a  party  attempted  the  descent 


Through  Lodore 


295 


in  boats  through  this  particular  series  of  canyons  and  was 
wrecked  in  Lodore.  The  descent  in  Lodore  is  420  feet,  and, 
in  the  distance  that  the  Meek  party  went  on  the  ice,  about  750 
feet.     A  band  of  CathoHc  missionaries,  according  to  Farnham,' 


Green  River  from  Green  River  Valley  to  Wonsits  Valley. 

The  Uinta  range  extends  across  from  left  to  right.  The  canyons  through  its  eastern 
flank  are  shown  by  the  very  dark  portions.  Brown's  Park  lies  between  two  series. 
The  first,  or  upper,  series  was  traversed  in  1825  by  Ashley;  the  second,  by  Meek  and 
party  on  the  ice  in  1838;  partially  by  an  unknown  band  about  1850;  and  all  of  the 
canyons  finally  by  Powell  in  1 869,  clear  down  to  the  Virgin  River. 

attempted  the  descent  of  the  Colorado,  presumably  from  the 
point  where  the  trail  to  Los  Angeles  crossed  Grand  or  Green 
River.     They  were  never  heard  of  again.     The  name  "Julian 


Travels  in  the  Great  Western  Prairies,  etc.,  by  Thomas  J.  Farnham. 


•296  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

— 1836"  is  cut  in  three  places  on  the  canyon  walls,  one  in  what 
is  called  Labyrinth  Canyon,  one  near  the  foot  of  Cataract 
Canyon,  and  another  near  the  head  of  the  same  canyon.  So  far 
as  the  records  known  to  me  go,  the  canyons  below  Lodore 
remained  absolute  wilderness  till  1869,  unless  this  Julien  passed 
through  Cataract,  as  is  suggested  by  the  occurrence  of  his 
name. 

A  trapper  made  famous  by  Ruxton's  romantic  account'  of 
his  doings  was  La  Bonte.  The  Arapahos  having  killed  four 
trappers  and  run  off  with  La  Bonte's  animals,  he  and  his  part- 
ner; Killbuck,  were  after  them.  They  discovered  the  camp 
where  the  scalps  of  the  trappers  were  stuck  on  a  spear  in  the 
centre  of  the  circle.  While  spying  out  the  situation,  one  of 
the  mules  perceived  them  and  gave  forth  a  whinny.  La  Bont6 
i  and  Killbuck  immediately  fired  killing  two  Arapahos,  where- 
upon the  three  survivors  rushed  upon  them  with  loud  yells. 
The  trappers,  "  drawing  their  pistols,  charged  at  once,  and 
although  the  bows  twanged  and  the  three  arrows  struck  their 
mark,  on  they  rushed,  discharging  their  pistols  at  close 
quarters.  La  Bonte  threw  his  empty  one  at  the  head  of  an 
Indian  who  was  pulling  his  second  arrow  to  its  head  at  a 
yard's  distance,  drew  his  knife  at  the  same  moment  and  made 
at  him.  But  the  Indian  broke  and  ran,  followed  by  his  sur- 
viving companion;  and  as  soon  as  Killbuck  could  ram  home 
another  ball  he  sent  a  shot  flying  after  them  as  they  scrambled 
up  the  mountain  side,  leaving,  in  their  fright  and  hurry,  their 
bows  and  shields  on  the  ground." 

La  Bonte  now  pulled  an  arrow  out  of  his  arm,  while  Kill- 
buck  took  his  whetstone  from  the  little  sheath  on  his  belt 
and  put  an  edge  on  his  knife.  Then,  examining  the  first  body 
to  see  if  any  life  remained,  and  finding  the  man  dead,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  the  business  of  scalping. 

"  Seizing  with  his  left  hand  the  long  braided  lock  on  the  centre 
of  the  Indian's  head,  he  passed  the  point  edge  of  his  keen  butcher 
knife  round  the  parting,  turning  it  at  the  same  time  under  the  skin 
to  separate  the  scalp  from  the  skull,  then  with  a  quick,  sudden  jerk 

*  Life  in  the  Far  West,  by  George  Frederick  Ruxton. 


White  Savages 


297 


of  his  hand  he  removed  it  entirely  from  the  head,  and  giving  the 
reeking  trophy  a  wring  upon  the  grass  to  free  it  from  the  blood,  he 
coolly  hitched  it  under  his  belt  and  proceeded  to  the  next;  but  see- 
ing La  Bonte  operating  upon  this,  he  sought  the  third,  who  lay  some 
little  distance  from  the  others.  This  one  was  still  alive,  a  pistol  ball 
having  passed  through  his  body  without  touching  a  vital  spot.  .  .  . 
Thrusting  his  knife  for  mercy's  sake  into  the  bosom  of  the  Indian,  he 
likewise  tore  the  scalp  lock  from  his  head  and  placed  it  with  the  other." 


Snow-bound  in  the  Wilderness — 1875. 
Pencil  sketch  on  the  spot  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

Killbuck  up  to  this  moment  had  been  walking  about  with 
an  arrow  through  his  thigh.  The  point  being  near  the  surface 
on  the  other  side,  he  pushed  it  entirely  through,  and  cut  the 
head  off  below  the  barb,  after  which  he  could  pull  the  shaft 
out.  A  tourniquet  of  buckskin  soon  stopped  the  bleeding,  and 
he  "brought  in  his  old  mule,  lavishing  many  a  caress  and  most 
comical  terms  of  endearment  upon  the  faithful  companion  of 
his  wanderings."  After  a  hasty  meal  on  the  venison  which 
the  Amerinds  had  been  cooking,  they  hurried  away  from  the 
locality  to  a  camp  of  Utes.  The  latter  were  enemies  of  the 
Arapahos,  and  when  La  Bonte  told  them  the  Arapahos  were 
coming  the   whole   village  was   speedily    in    commotion :   the 


%9^  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

squaws  began  to  lament  and  tear  their  hair;  the  warriors,  to 
paint  and  arm  themselves.  A  band  of  a  hundred  soon  left  for 
the  field,  and  La  Bonte  and  Killbuck  would  have  gone  too, 
but  the  chiefs  forbade  this,  as  their  wounds  were  stiff  and 
painful  and  they  were  well  worn  out.  So  buffalo  robes  were 
placed  in  a  warm  roomy  lodge  and  they  were  left  to  rest  and 
recuperate. 

On  the  Mexican  frontier  trouble  had  for  some  time  been 
brewing  concerning  the  status  of  Texas  in  the  Mexican  po- 
litical arrangement.  The  Texans,  who  were  now  mainly 
Americans,  having  followed  the  lead  of  Austin,  desired  to 
have  Texas  a  sovereign  Mexican  state,  but  a  military  govern- 
ment was  proposed  by  the  Mexicans  and  a  revolt  occurred  in 
1835,  which  resulted  in  a  proclamation  of  entire  independence, 
March  2,  1836.  The  Texans  triumphed  the  same  year  under 
Houston  at  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto.  The  western  boundary 
was  laid  without  any  just  reason  along  the  Rio  Grande  from 
its  mouth  to  the  source  and  thence  due  north  to  the  forty- 
second  parallel ;  but  the  Mexicans  refused  to  consider  any  line 
beyond  the  Nueces  River,  when  the  independence  of  Texas 
was  finally  allowed.  Therefore  the  boundary  on  the  Rio 
Grande  never  having  been  agreed  to  by  the  owner  of  the  soil, 
Mexico,  it  has  no  rightful  place  on  any  map.  It  never  had 
any  existence,  and  as  it  is  usually  given  without  qualification 
on  historical  maps,  it  is  entirely  misleading. 

In  the  troublous  times  which  now  for  a  period  fell  upon  the 
Wilderness,  a  new  figure  comes  to  the  front  and  dominates  the 
epoch  with  a  force  that  resulted  in  attaching  his  name  to  it 
forever  and  at  the  same  time  in  rousing  a  great  amount  of 
opposition  and  condemnation.  This  was  John  C.  Fremont, 
called  the  Pathfinder,  though,  as  the  reader  perceives  from  the 
preceding  pages,  the  main  paths  had  long  before  been  found. 
Nevertheless,  Fremont  was  the  first  of  his  kind — the  first  to 
follow  paths  for  the  sake  of  the  paths  themselves — the  first 
to  record  them  properly — the  first  who  looked  at  the  Wilder- 
ness beyond  the  peaks  of  the  Rockies  with  sole  reference  to 
the  geographical  problems  that  might  lie  there — the  first  to 
pay  attention  to  the  botany  and  geology.      He  has  been  ridi- 


Canyon  of  Lodore — Green  River. 

The  first  on  record  to  go  through  this  and  the  canyons  immediately  below  it — that  is,  from 
Brown's  Park  to  Wonsits  Valley — was  Joe  Meek,  and  a  party  of  trappers,  on  the  ice  in  the 
winter  of  1838-39. 

Photograph  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 


299 


300  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

culed  for  likening  himself  when  looking  down  on  Salt  Lake^ 
to  Balboa  but  the  injustice  of  this  is  apparent  when  we  find 
that  he  did  not  compare  himself  to  the  Spanish  explorer,  but 
merely  said  he  was  "doubtful  if  the  followers  of  Balboa  felt 
more  enthusiasm  "  when  they  saw  the  Pacific  for  the  first  time. 
Fremont,  as  a  lieutenant,  and  about  twenty-five,  began  his 
work  with  Nicollet  on  the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  in 
1838-40.  In  Washington  he  met  Senator  Benton  ;  and  also  his 
daughter,  Jessie,  whom  he  married  in  1841.  In  1842  he  was 
selected  to  explore  the  region  of  South  Pass  and  on  this 
journey  he  climbed  the  peak  named  for  him, — the  highest  of 
the  Wind  River  Mountains.  In  1843  he  was  out  again,  re- 
maining fourteen  months,  with  a  large  party  of  frontiersmen. 
He  made  a  third  journey  in  1845-47,  resigning  from  the  army 
on  his  return.  His  fourth,  last,  and  disastrous  trip  was  in 
1848.  In  his  several  expeditions  he  went  to  Oregon  by  the 
Bear  River,  Fort  Hall,  and  Snake  River  route;  to  Klamath 
and  Pyramid  lakes;  to  San  Joaquin  Valley;  to  southern  Cali- 
fornia; back  over  the  Jedediah  Smith  (outward)  trail  from  Salt 
Lake;  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Green  River  from 
Utah  Lake,  and  so  back  and  forth  in  a  number  of  directions. 

In  1845  Texas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 
President  Polk,  on  what  ground  is  not  apparent,  agreed  with 
the  Texans  that  the  western  limit  of  their  domain  was  certainly 
the  Rio  Grande.  He  might  as  well  then  and  there  have  agreed 
that  it  was  the  Pacific.  General  Taylor  was  ordered  to  occupy 
the  region  west  of  the  Nueces  and  he  pushed  on  to  the  Rio 
Grande.  There  was  nothing  left  for  the  Mexicans  to  do  but 
fight,  and  this  they  accordingly  did.  Scott  was  ordered  with 
his  army  to  Mexico,  Kearney  to  New  Mexico  and  California. 
Santa  F6  was  easily  captured  in  1846,  and  the  navy  speedily 
took  the  California  coast  towns.  Fremont  being  in  California 
engaged  actively  in  the  insurrection  there,  and  was  much 
censured  for  what  he  did.  The  Mexicans  were  vanquished. 
In  1848  a  treaty  was  entered  into  between  them  and  the  United 
States,  by  which  in  consideration  of  $i5,cxx),ooo,  and  the 
United  States  assuming  aU  claims,  New  Mexico  and  California 
were  ceded  to  the  Americans  —  that  is,  all  below  the  forty- 


The  American  Conquest 


301 


second  parallel  to  the  Gila  and  the  Rio  Grande.  The  latter 
river  now  was  admitted  to  be  the  western  boundary  of  Texas; 
a  boundary  afterwards  adjusted  with  the  Federal  Government. 
The  Mexicans  were  left  with  nothing  north  of  the  Gila;  the 
British  with  nothing  south  of  the  forty-ninth  parallel,  west  of 
the  Mississippi.     The  immense  area  which  once  had  formed  the 


A  Chance  Meeting. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


basis  of  so  many  broad  and  indefinite  claims  was  now  held  by 
a  nation  which  had  no  being  when  the  European  countries 
began  their  wrangling  over  this  splendid  domain.  From  At- 
lantic to  Pacific,  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  one  power  was  in  control,  and  that  power  the  very 
youngest  in  all  the  world.  The  American  nation  had  secured 
for  itself  the  most  fertile,  most  diversified,  and  altogether  the 
finest  and  richest  area  on  the  entire  globe.  The  Spanish  sen^ 
tinel  had  been  turned  with  his  face  to  the  wall;  the  British 
sentinel  was  equally  overwhelmed ;  the  natives  were  cheerfully 


302 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


poisoned  with  cheap  whiskey ;  and  it  was  now  only  a  question 
of  settlement  and  communication  between  the  widely  separated 
parts  of  the  Republic. 

The  beaver  was  gone.  Buffalo  robes  formed  the  bulk  of 
the  fur  trade.  Even  the  buffalo  were  diminishing  in  numbers. 
It  seemed  as  if  little  incentive  remained  to  lead  people  to  brave 
the  discomforts  and  dangers  of  the  western  Wilderness.  It 
appeared  as  if  the  young  Republic  for  centuries  to  come  would 
have  a  wilderness  on  its  hands. 

But  under  the  very  feet  of  the  trapper  struggling  to  earn 
his  small  wage  by  exterminating  the  beaver,  rich  metals  were 
hidden;  and  Fortune  was  almost  ready  to  remove  the  blind- 
fold, and  lure  the  next  set  of  Wilderness  breakers  into  the 
field. 


/ 


/ 


CHAPTER    XVI 

Free  Distribution  of  Fremont's  Reports — Latter  Day  Saints — Murder  of  a  Prophet 
— Brigham  Young  Guides  Saints  to  the  Wilderness — The  State  of  Deseret — 
California  the  Golden — Massacre  at  Mountain  Meadows — Old  Jacob,  the 
Mormon  Leatherstocking — Steam  on  the  Lower  Colorado — Old  Jacob  Finds 
the  Crossing  of  the  Fathers — Circumtouring  the  Grand  Canyon — Solitudes  of 
the  Colorado — Last  of  the  Wilderness  Problems — Powell  Solves  it  by  Mas- 
terful Courage — The  Iron  Trail — The  End  and  the  Beginning. 


THE  reports  Fremont  made  of  his  several  expeditions  were 
so  striking  and  so  important  that  Congress  ordered  thou- 
sands of  copies  to  be  printed  for  free  distribution.  They 
formed  the  beginning  of  the  long  series  of  invaluable  volumes 
the  Government  since  that  day  has  so  wisely  and  so  lavishly 
published.  First  to  present  drawings  of  new  plants  and  fossils 
as  well  as  to  give  accurate  details  of  geography,  they  serve  to 
mark  Fremont  as  the  scientific  Pathfinder.  Botanical  speci- 
mens were  classified  by  Torrey;  paleontological  by  Hall,  and 
comment  on  the  excellence  of  their  work  is  unnecessary. 
Altogether  these  expeditions  of  Fremont  began  a  new  period 
in  Wilderness  exploration — the  period  of  scientific  examina- 
tion. He  has  been  much  criticised,  but  it  was  he  who  broke 
the  way  for  the  numerous  Government  expeditions  which  fol- 
lowed and  which  reflect  much  credit  on  the  intelligence  and 
generosity  of  Congress.  Few  governments  have  ever  fostered 
the  scientific  spirit  with  a  better  grace  or  to  so  full  an  extent, 

303 


304  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

and  Fremont  was  partly  responsible  for  this  commendable 
attitude.  Through  his  enthusiastic  labours  the  Far  West  be- 
gan to  be  more  clearly  understood  than  ever  before.  He  took 
no  pessimistic  view  of  the  resources  of  the  Wilderness  as  Pike 
and  Long  had  done,  but  was  rather  inclined  to  the  other  side. 
It  seems  notable  that  he  should  so  commandingly  have  stepped 
into  the  vast  field  at  a  moment  coincident  with  the  collapse  of 
beaver  trapping  as  a  business ;  an  industry  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  responsible  for  the  breaking  of  all  the  main  trails 
of  the  Wilderness,  and  for  searching  out  every  important 
secret  save  that  of  the  hidden  fury  of  the  Colorado.  Not  only 
had  the  beaver  been  practically  exterminated,  but  the  bison 
was  on  the  decline.'  Those  beyond  the  mountains  suffered 
nearly  to  the  point  of  annihilation  in  the  exceptionally  heavy 
snows  of  the  winter  of  1842-43. 

The  Great  Salt  Lake,  enshrined  in  the  snowy  mountains 
and  resembling  the  Dead  Sea  of  Palestine,  strongly  appealed 
to  the  imagination  of  a  new  sect  which  was  to  have  a  great 
effect  on  the  Wilderness,  a  sect  which  in  1830  began  its  de- 
velopment, and  notwithstanding  vigorous  and  often  bloody 
opposition  or  possibly  because  of  it,  augmented  steadily  its 
power.  Those  who  adopted  this  new  creed  were  commonly 
called  Mormons  though  they  designated  themselves  as  "The 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints."  The  cult,  like 
others  which  have  prospered,  was  originated  by  a  very  poor 
and  rather  despised  individual,  Joseph  Smith,  near  Palmyra, 
New  York.  By  his  followers.  Smith  was  believed  to  possess 
supernatural  powers  as  a  seer  and  prophet.  He  had  political 
ambition  also,  for  in  1844,  he  "published  an  address  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States  on  the  powers  and  policy  of  the  gen- 
eral government  and  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the 
office  of  President."  Out  of  his  visions  and  inspirations  grew 
the  now  famous  Book  of  Mormon^  purporting  to  relate  the  his- 
tory of  the  original  people  of  the  Western  World,  the  Amerinds, 
or  "Indians,"  descendants  by  its  authority  of  some  of  those 

'  Though  beaver  trapping  was  no  longer  profitable,  yet  the  fur  business  was 
still  carried  on,  and,  as  Chittenden  points  out,  is  to-day  greater  than  ever.  Furs 
now  come  from  a  much  wider  range,  however. 


Brigham  Young  3^5 

who  were  dispersed  and  lost  to  history  by  the  confusion  of 
tongues  at  the  Tower  of  Babel.  In  Mormon  belief  it  supple- 
ments the  Holy  Bible,  which  they  hold  to  be  the  history 
of  the  Eastern  World  as  well  as  .the  Divinely  inspired 
Word.  Thus  they  have  the  Bible,  the  Book  of  Mormon, 
the  Book  of  Doctrine  and  Covenants  and  a  book  of  guidance 
called  Pearl  of  Great  Price.  First  success  was  due  to  Sidney 
Rigdon. 

After  a  number  of  migrations  in  search  of  the  proper  spot 
whereon  to  found  the  New  Jerusalem,  the  Mormons  were 
attracted  by  reports  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  lying  in  Mexican 
territory,  and  in  some  degree  duplicating  the  topography  of 
the  Holy  Land.  Having  much  difficulty  with  their  neigh- 
bours, they  were  desirous  of  isolating  themselves,  and  to  them 
the  region  of  the  Salt  Sea  of  the  Wilderness  seemed  the  prom- 
ised land.  Their  Prophet  Joseph  had  been  murdered  in  cold 
blood,  June  27,  1844,  in  Carthage  jail,  whither  he  had  been 
taken  from  his  Mormon  town  of  Nauvoo,  Illinois,  having 
there,  on  the  advice  of  the  Governor,  surrendered  himself  for 
trial  on  charges  preferred  by  his  opponents.  The  Mormons 
resolved  then  to  move  bodily  to  the  valley  of  the  American 
Dead  Sea,  wild  and  forbidding  though  it  seemed.  A  thousand 
miles  of  separation  from  their  antagonists,  by  what  was  then 
believed  to  be  irreclaimable  desert,  was  a  condition  they  de- 
sired and  doubtless  they  believed  that  once  established  on  that 
foreign  soil  behind  a  barrier  of  mountain  ranges,  they  would 
there  be  able  to  develop  their  institutions  unmolested.  No 
mind  then  foresaw  the  rapid  exploration  and  settlement  of  the 
Wilderness  which  has  taken  place. 

>i  Brigham  Young,  the  new  leader  who  succeeded  Smith,  was 
possessed  of  unusual  executive  ability  and  clear  judgment, 
though  with  a  limited  school  education.  But  no  amount  of 
book  knowledge  could  have  replaced  the  qualities  with  which 
he  was  born.  Possessing  such  a  commander;  with  a  martyred 
prophet  in  the  background;  with  "persecution"  unlimited; 
the  Mormons  were  equipped  for  sectarian  as  well  as  for  civil 
progress.  Add  to  all  this  the  suggestion  of  the  Holy  Land 
found    in    the    country    of    their    choice,  and    the    State  of 


3o6 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


Deseret,  as  they  wished  to  call  it,  was  in  a  position  to  appeal 
strongly  to  those  who  were  looking  for  salvation  in  some 
new  form.' 

It  was  not  till  July,  1847,  ^^at  they  were  able  in  numbers 
to  reach  the  Salt  Lake,  and  doubtless  the  dry,  barren,  region 
appeared  discouraging.  But  Brigham  Young,  who  followed  a 
little  later,  had  not  begun  this  move  blindly.  His  astute  mind 
had  shown  him  that  irrigation  by  means  of  the  mountain  tor- 


A  Mbrmon  Sorghum  Mill  and  Evaporating  Pans. 

Photograph  by  F.  S    Dellenbaugh. 


rents  would  transform  into  gardens  the  arid  plains,  exactly  as 
had  been  done  in  that  dreamland  of  the  Wilderness,  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley.  At  first  the  devotees  of  the  Mormon  faith 
had  a  severe  time,  starvation  was  close  to  their  thresholds,  but 
perseverance,  grit,  and  industry  gradually  Conquered  the  an- 
tagonism of  nature  and  the  once  forbidding  valley  was  pre- 

'  Books  about  the  >iormons  are  fall  of  prejudice  one  way  or  the  other.     The 
most  valuable  account  I  know  is  The  Story  of  the  Mormons,  by  William  A.  Linn. 


Mormon  Law  and  Order  307 

sently  offering  the  Latter  Day  Saints  abundance ;  Salt  Lake 
City  became  a  centre  of  order  and  prosperity.  Other  portions 
from  this  as  a  base  were  brought  under  cultivation  and  the  soil 
was  rendered  prolific.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that  these 
people  were  Wilderness  breakers  of  high  quality.  They  not 
only  broke  it,  but  they  kept  it  broken ;  and  instead  of  the  gin 
mill  and  the  gambling  hell,  as  corner  stones  of  their  progress, 
and  as  examples  to  the  natives  of  white  men's  superiority, 


A  Setback. 
Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

they  planted  orchards,  gardens,  farms,  schoolhouses,  and 
peaceful  homes  ^  There  is  to-day,  no  part  of  the  United 
States  where  human  life  is  safer  than  in  the  land  of  the  Mor- 
mons ;  no  place  where  there  is  less  lawlessness.  A  people  who 
have  accomplished  so  much  that  is  good,  who  have  endured 
danger,  privation,  and  suffering,  who  have  withstood  the 
obloquy  of  more  powerful  sects,  have  in  them  much  that  is 
commendable;   they  deserve  more  than  abuse,  they  deserve 

^  The  reader  may  conclude  from  my  remarks  on  alcoholic  beverages  that  I  am 
a  Prohibitionist  or  a  teetotaler,  yet  such  is  not  the  case.  But  the  manner  in  which 
whiskey  was  furnished  to  the  natives,  and  the  way  in  which  it  debauches  the 
frontier  towns,  are  a  disgrace  to  humanity. 


t 

308  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

admiration,  no  matter  what  may  have  been  their  shortcomings 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  career. 

The  fortunes  of  the  Mexican  War,  which  the  Mormons 
helped  to  decide  for  the  American  arms,  as  far  as  they  were 
able,  soon  threw  them  again  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States,  and  eventually,  in  place  of  their  desired  State 
oLDeseret,  Congress  established  the  Territory  of  Utah,  and 
made  Brigham  Young  first  governor,  an  appointment  which 
should  never  have  been  made  if  the  Mormons  were  as  bad  a 
people  as  by  some  was  maintained.  By  it  the  Government 
really  sanctioned  the  Mormon  creed. 

Besides  the  Mormons  other  sects  pushed  into  the  Wilder- 
ness. The  Methodists  and  Presbyterians  were  early  in  Oregon, 
the  first  under  the  Lees  and  the  second  under  Whitman.  The 
Catholics  also  began  missionary  work  in  that  quarter,  and  their 
chief  worker  was  Father  De_^Smet,  whose  name  is  forever 
welded  into  the  history  of  the  Wilderness,  by  his  earnest 
labours  for  one  thing,  but  more  particularly  by  his  careful  ob- 
servation and  the  records  which  he  made  of  all  he  saw.  He 
went  everywhere  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Wilderness,  al- 
ways welcome,  always  doing  good,  and  never  in  danger.  More 
ought  to  be  related  here  concerning  his  career,  but  the  limits 
of  this  volume  prevent. 

Meanwhile  the  settlers  in  California  startled  the  sleepy  at- 
mosphere of  the  old  Mission  regime ;  yet  the  region  was  so 
inaccessible  from  the  East  that  few  ventured  to  go  there.  But 
Fortune  was  holding  something  in  reserve.  A  blindfold  was  on 
all  eyes;  no  one  could  see  the  future  indicated  by  the  discovery 
of  gold  near  San  Fernando  Mission.  It  had  been  washed  out 
as  early  as  1841,  but  only  in  a  small  way,  and  it  was  not  till 
one  day  in  1849,  when  nuggets  were  found  in  repairing  a  mill 
race  on  Sutter's  ranch  at  the  mouth  of  the  American  River,  that 
the  blindfold  was  dropped  and  the  people  saw.  In  a  general 
way  this  was  the  end  of  what  may  be  termed  the  Fremont 
period  and  the  beginning  of  another,  which  was  to  have  a 
tremendous  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  the  Wilderness. 
Emigrants  crossed  the  oceans;  they  crossed  the  Wilderness; 
they  came  from  round  the  globe  by  thousands  and  by  thou- 


Discovery  of  Gold  309 

sands  again,  to  wash  from  the  golden  soil  of  California  their 
everlasting  fortunes.     It  became  a  stampede. 

There  were  two  routes  from  the  East.  One,  the  northern, 
by  the  Oregon  Trail,  and  the  other,  .the  southern,  by  way  of 
the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  both  starting  from  Westport,  now  Kansas 
City.  A  few  years  before  they  had  started  from  Independence, 
some  miles  farther  east.  The  Oregon  Trail  was  followed  as 
far  as  Fort  Bridger,^  a  post  established  by  the  famous  trapper 
of  that  name,  on  Ham's  Fork  in  Green  River  Valley,  1843,  ^^id 
also  as  far  as  the  great  bend  of  Bear  River,  when  the  immi- 
grants made  for  Salt  Lake  and  thence  by  way  of  the  Humboldt 
to  and  over  the  Sierras;  or  south  about  on  the  trail  of  Escal- 
ante  and  Jedediah  Smith,  till  it  struck  the  old  Wolfskill  (Span- 
ish) Trail,  which  was  then  followed  down  the  west  side  of  the 
Wasatch  Range  to  the  Mountain  Meadows  on  the  head  of 
the  Santa  Clara,  across  the  Beaver  Dam  Mountains,  down  the 
Virgin  nearly  to  the  Colorado,  and  then  across  southern  Cali- 
fornia. From  Santa  F6  two  routes  were  open ;  one  by  way  of 
the  Gila  and  the  other  northward  over  Wolfskill's  trail,  the 
"Old  Spanish  Trail,"  to  Green  River  at  Gunnison  Valley, 
and  then  across  the  mountains  to  join  the  other  trail  com- 
ing down  from  Salt  Lake  not  far  from  the  present  town  of 
Nephi.  The  northern  route  by  the  Humboldt  was  the  one 
most  travelled.  The  interesting  incidents  connected  with 
these  trails  and  the  California  gold  rush  would  fill  a  volume. 
There  were  battles,  scalpings,  starvation,  captivity,  and  pri- 
vations of  all  kinds.  Sometimes  a  whole  family  was  de- 
stroyed at  one  blow,  as  in  the  case  of  Oatman,  who  had 
ventured  on  without  company.  He  was  attacked  by  Apaches 
on  the  Gila,  the  slaughter  being  speedy  and,  as  the  murderers 
thought,  complete,  excepting  two  daughters,  whom  they  sold 
to  the  Mohaves.  A  son,  however,  recovered  sufficiently  to 
escape.  One  of  the  daughters  died ;  the  other  was  discovered 
five  years  later  by  Henry  Grinell,  and  was  bought  by  him  from 
her  Mohave  owners  and  sent  to  her  brother  in  Los  Angeles." 

^  For  location  of  forts  and  trading  posts  see  Chittenden,  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can Fur  Trade,  Part  III.,  with  an  excellent  map. 
'"*  Captivity  of  the  Oatman  Girls,  R.  B.  Stratton. 


!. 


o  Breaking  the  Wilderness 


Another  affair  which  stirred  the  outer  world  a  few  years 
after  this,  1857,  was  the  "Mountain  Meadows  Massacre." 
Just  at  this  moment,  owing  to  a  quarrel  between  the  Federal 
Government  and  Brigham  Young,  a  small  army  under  Colonel 
Albert  Sydney  Johnston,  famous  later  as  a  Confederate  leader, 
was  sent  in  a  half-hearted  and  futile  way  against  the  Mormons. 
This  move  was  a  great  error  on  the  part  of  the  authorities,  and 
it  hardly  appears  as  if  they  were  in  earnest.  Either  a  well- 
equipped,  powerful  army  should  have  been  sent  that  could 
have  reduced  the  Mormons  if  th'ey  had  done  anything  deserv- 
ing such  treatment,  which  appears  not  to  have  been  the  fact, 
or  they  should  have  been  dealt  with  by  arbitration  and  argu- 
ment as  free-born  citizens  of  the  United  States.  The  army 
operations  were  a  ridiculous  fiasco,  but  nevertheless  gave  the 
Mormons  ground  for  the  assertions  that  they  were  invincible. 
A  caravan  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  people  from  the  Arkansas- 
Missouri  region  was  now  on  its  way  from  Salt  Lake  to  Cali- 
fornia by  the  southern  trail  Between  people  from  that  region 
and  the  Mormons  there  had  always  been  bitter  feeling,  and  it 
was  now  aggravated  by  the  presence  of  the  threatening  army 
and  by  contemptuous  taunts  which  the  immigrants  are  said  to 
have  freely  spread  along  their  route,  accompanied  by  vile 
epithets.  It  is  also  said  that  they  stole  fowls  and  other  pro- 
perty and  abused  those  who  remonstrated.  The  result  was 
that  when  they  reached  Mountain  Meadows,  where  they  in- 
tended, as  was  the  custom,  to  rest  before  starting  on  the  more 
difficult  journey  beyond,  they  were  attacked  by  a  number  of 
natives  and  Mormon  fanatics.  The  attack  was  a  local  matter 
and  had  no  authority  then  or  afterwards  from  the  officials 
of  the  Church.,  The  immigrants  were  well  armed  and  made  a 
good  fight,  believing  the  attacking  party  to  be  natives  all. 
When  the  Mormon  participants  appeared  on  the  scene  and  told 
the  Gentiles  if  they  would  lay  down  their  arms  the  Mormons 
would  guarantee  safe  exit  from  the  valley,  they  accepted  the 
proposition  as  an  honourable  one;  they  were  anxious  to  spare 
their  wives  and  children  further  exposure.  They  went  forth, 
therefore,  in  confidence,  but  as  they  neared  the  south  end  of 
the  valley  the  miscreants,  as  treacherous  as  the  lowest  savage, 


312  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

violated  without  compunction  their  pledge.  The  immigrants 
were  coolly  butchered,  for  they  were  now  helpless.  Only  a 
few  little  children  were  spared,  and  John  D.  Lee,  the  leader 
of  the  Mormon  villains,  perpetrated,  according  to  account, 
crimes  unspeakable  in  connection  with  murder  of  the  most 
cold-blooded  character. 

A  pile  of  stones  was  reared  on  the  spot  where  the  bodies 
were  buried,  and  as  one  looks  down  upon  it  to-day  from  the 
waggon-road,  which  runs  somewhat  farther  up  the  slope  than  at 
that  time,  the  grim  spectres  of  Death  and  Dishonour  appear 
still  to  hover  above  the  scene  of  blood ;  where  savages  were 
put  to  shame  in  an  exhibition  of  terrible  depravity.  A  dismal 
pall  seems  to  pervade  the  once  pure  valley  and  doubtless  al- 
ways will.  At  the  north  end  the  cutting  of  floods  in  the 
stream-bed  has  destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  tillable  soil,  and 
springs  that  once  flowed  abundantly  have  disappeared.  Sev- 
eral houses,  stand  there,  but  they  have  a  forlorn  and  dilapi- 
dated appearance.  The  hand  of  Fate  has  laid  a  blight  on 
the  plage,  and  it  will  yet  be  many  a  long  year  before  that 
awful  tragedy  will  not  live  again  as  the  traveller  passes  over 
the  fatal  road.  No  Mormon  I  have  ever  met  thoug-ht  for  a 
moment  of  excusing  the  action  of  the  fanatics  who  led  the 
massacre.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  always  been  unequivocally 
condemned. 

Even  Lee  was  at  least  ashamed  of  the  part  he  played,  and 
be  tried  to  persuade  me  in  1872  that  he  was  innocent,  that  he 
attempted  to  prevent  the  crime,  and  that  he  had  wept  when  he 
found  it  was  to  be  done.  Yet  immediately  after  the  event 
he  admitted  to  other  Mormons  that  ^he  had  taken  part.  He 
was  "cut  off  "  from  the  Church  and  for  years  lived  an  outlawed 
life  in  the  most  inaccessible  places,  but  he  was  caught  and,  in 
1877,  executed  at  the  scene  of  his  hideous  deed.  The  massacre 
was  most  unlucky  for  the  Mormons,  as  the  world  refused  to 
believe  that  it  was  not  secretly  sanctioned.  Unfortunately 
for  the  poor  immigrants  one  man  who  probably  could  have 
saved  them,  and  who  certainly  would  have  tried  desperately 
to  do  it,  was  absent  from  his  home  at  the  Meadows  at  that 
time,  being  on  his  way  to  Salt  Lake.     This  was  Jacob  Ham- 


f  «F  THE     ■*      X 

(    UNIVERSITY  ) 

^"Sit^asa>^  Old  Jacob  3 1 3 

blin,  the  Leatherstocking  of  Utah,  or  "Old  Jacob,"  as  he  was 
familiarly  called  when  I  knew  him  some  fourteen  years  after 
the  massacre.  On  another  occasion  when  a  fanatic,  stationed 
on  the  Muddy  to  assist  immigrants,  concluded  to  kill  a 
man,  and  said  to  Jacob,  "This  man  must  go  up,"  Jacob  an- 
swered, "If  he  does  I  go  up  first,  mark  that,"  and  the  man 
went  free  and  never  knew  his  danger;  for  it  would  have  been 
a  reckless  nature  that  would  have  dared  to  oppose  the  wrath 
of  Old  Jacob. 

Had  he  been  at  Mountain  Meadows  on  that  awful  day 
he  would  have  saved  the  immigrants  or  would  have  died  with 
them. 

Old  Jacob  was  a  remarkable  character,  and  must  hold  a 
place  in  the  annals  of  the  Wilderness  beside  Jedediah  Smith, 
Bridger,  the  Sublettes,  and  the  rest  of  that  gallant  band.  But 
he  differed  in  one  respect  from  every  one  of  them ;  he  sought 
no  pecuniary  gain,  working  for  the  good  of  his  chosen  people, 
always  poor  and  seeming  to  have  no  ambition  for  riches. 
Honest,  slow  and  low  of  speech,  keen  of  perception,  quick 
of  action,  and  with  admirable  poise  and  judgment.  Old 
Jacob  was  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  Wilderness,  and  one  of  the 
last  of  his  kind.  Long  ago  I  tried  to  persuade  him  to  tell  me 
for  publication  the  story  of  his  life,  but  he  then  intended  to 
write  it  himself.  Afterwards  it  was  brought  out  by  the  Church 
in  the  "Faith  Promoting  Series."  ' 

In  1855  the  Mormons  had  progressed  far  enough  into  the 
southern  Wilderness  to  settle  on  the  Santa  Clara  near  the  Vir- 
gin, and  in  1861  they  founded  St.  George,  now  the  principal 
town  of  that  wide  region.  They  also  settled  at  Grafton  and 
several  other  places  up  the  Virgin  which  winds  its  way  through 
a  series  of  bounding  cliffs  that  rival  those  of  the  Grand  Canyon 
of  the  Colorado.^ 

-  Jacob  Hamhlin  ;  A  Narrative  of  His  Personal  Experience,  Fifth  Book  of 
the  Faith  Promoting  Series,  by  James  A.  Little.  Juvenile  Instructor  Office,  Salt 
Lake  City,  1881. 

'^  The  Mormons  also  settled  in  southern  California,  and  Major  Bell  declared 
"  they  were  the  very  best  fellows  "  he  ever  had  to  do  with.  In  1859  they  were- 
recalled  to  Utah  by  Brigham  Young,  who  for  the  time  being  concentrated  his 
people  in  the  territory  over  which  they  had  control. 


SH  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

As  yet  few  white  men  since  Escalante,  in  1776,  had  crossed 
the  great  canyon  barrier  of  the  Colorado  between  the  mouth 
of  the  Virgin  and  Gunnison  Valley  on  Green  River,  a  distance 
of  about  six  hundred  miles  as  the  river  runs.  Escalante  had 
hunted  out  the  fording-place  of  the  Utes>  some  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Paria,  the  only  place  in  all  that  stretch  where 
fording  is  possible  even  at  the  lowest  stage  of  water,  which 
occurs  in  the  autumn  and  winter.  The  trapper,  Richard 
Campbell,  as  early  as  1840,  perhaps  as  early  as  1827,  knew  of 
the  Crossing  of  the  Fathers,  as  it  was  called  because  of  Escal- 
ante's  venture,  and  he  also  knew  that  a  trail  from  Zuni  went 
there,  but  whether  he  had  crossed  is  not  clear.  James  O. 
Pattie  had  travelled  along  near  the  canyon  edge  for  a  consider- 
able distance  and  finally  reached  Grand  River,  but  his  route  is 
obscure,  for  his  narrative  gives  few  details  of  this  important 
part  of  his  remarkable  journey  from  the  mouth  of  the  Gila  to 
the  head  of  the  Yellowstone  in  1826.  When  the  Mormons 
reached  southern  Utah  the  whole  length  of  the  Green  and 
Colorado  from  Green  River  Valley  to  the  mouth  of  the  Virgin 
was  mainly  unbroken  Wilderness,  only  the  extreme  upper  por- 
tion having  been  entered  by  trappers  and  the  lower  part, 
except  the  crossing  of  a  few  persons  at  the  Escalante  ford,  was 
a  complete  blank.  Ashley  had  made  no  record  of  what  he  saw 
in  Red  Canyon,  and  his  voyage  there  was  forgotten.  Meek's 
trip  through  Lodore  on  the  ice  was  likewise  forgotten,  and 
several  other  futile  attempts  to  solve  the  mystery  of  the  Colo- 
rado were  vague  memories  in  the  minds  of  the  trapper  fratern- 
ity. Bridger  and  Carson  had  been  near  the  upper  canyons 
from  time  to  time,  and  once  Bridger  attempted  to  explore  the 
Green  by  following  along  the  land,  but  soon  gave  it  up  for  lack 
of  water.  He  and  his  companions  could  see  the  river,  but 
they  could  not  get  down  to  it.  E.  L.  Berthoud,  the  engineer, 
in  1 861  also  made  an  attempt,  but  gave  it  up  after  one  day  for 
the  same  reason.  There  was,  indeed,  only  one  way  to  fathom 
the  secrets  of  this  river,  and  that  was  to  start  above  wiih  good 
boats  and  go  down  on  the  tide;  but  as  yet  no  man  had  ap- 
peared with  sufficient  nerve  and  good  judgment  to  make  a 
successful  attempt  at  it. 


Steamboats  on  the  Colorado  3^5 

In  1861  Berthoud  and  Bridger  explored  a  road  from  Denver 
to  Salt  Lake  by  wa}^  of  Middle  Park,  crossing  the  Green  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Uinta.  This  road  was  for  the  Overland 
Stage  Company.  Owing  to  the  Civil  War  the  project  was 
abandoned,  but  a  regiment  of  California  volunteers  marched 
this  way  from  Salt  Lake  to  Denver.  The  distance  was  413 
miles ; '  and  there  was  small  record  of  the  features  of  the  Wil- 
derness through  which  the  road  ran.  From  the  mouth  of  the 
Colorado  at  the  Gulf  of  California  up  to  within  a  short  distance 
of  Fort  Yuma  Lieutenant  Derby,  of  the  Topographical  En- 
gineers, made  an  examination  in  1851,  and  later  that  same  year 
George  A.  Johnson  came  to  the  mouth  with  supplies  for 
Yuma,  constructing  there  some  flatboats  for  the  purpose  of 
transporting  the  cargo  to  the  fort.  The  Gila  at  this  time  was 
the  southern  boundary  in  this  quarter  of  the  United  States, 
but  complications  having  arisen  over  an  ill-defined  portion  of 
the  line  a  new  treaty  was  negotiated  by  Gadsden  in  1853,  by 
which,  for  a  consideration  of  ten  million  dollars  paid  to  Mex- 
ico, the  boundary  was  placed  where  it  is  now.  The  mouth  of 
the  Colorado  was  not  included,  though  navigation  privileges 
were  granted.  The  mouth  of  the  river  is  of  no  value  to  Mex- 
ico and  ought  to  be  purchased  by  the  United  States,  although 
the  difficulty  of  navigation  renders  it  of  comparatively  small 
importance. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  Yuma  post,  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Gila,  a  steamer  adapted  to  this  kind  of  navigation  was 
brought  by  sea  from  San  Francisco  by  Turnbull.  This  was  to 
ply  between  the  fort  and  the  Gulf  at  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado. 
She  was  named  Uncle  Sam,  and  it  was  only  a  few  months  be- 
fore she  struck  a  snag  and  went  to  the  bottom.  The  power  of 
the  river,  the  immense  quantity  of  sediment  brought  down 
and  shiftingly  deposited  by  every  slack  current,  the  earth- 
quakes, and  the  fierce  tidal  bore,  rendered  navigation  anything 
but  easy.  Turnbull  gave  up,  but  Johnson  took  the  contract 
for  transporting  the  fort  supplies  from  the  Gulf  and  soon  had  a 
new  steamer  in  service,  the  General  Jesiip.  This  was  followed 
by  a  second,  the  Colorado,  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long. 
Johnson  becarrle  familiar  with  every  bar  and  current  and  for 

'  Provo  to  Golden. 


3i6 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


years  continued  skilfully  to  operate  his  boats.  He  knew  the 
history  of  that  locality  as  perhaps  no  other  man  could  know  it.^ 
In  185 1  Sitgreaves  reconnoitred  the  country  about  on  the 
trail  of  Garces,  and  in  1854  Whipple,  also  for  the  Government, 
explored  along  the  35th  parallel.  The  mighty  gorges  carved 
through  the  great  plateau  prohibited  north  and  south  travel, 
for  they  were  well-nigh  impossible  to  cross  except  at  the  one  or 
two  places  mentioned.  A  mountain  range  of  equal  length  and 
of  the  greatest  magnitude  would  not   have  offered  so  tremen- 


The  Steamboat  "  Explorer 


in  which  Lieutenant  Ives,  in  1858,  Ascended  the  Colorado  to 

the  Foot  of  Black  Canyon. 
Sketch  by  H.  B.  Mollhausen. 


dous  an  obstacle.  In  1857  E.  F.  Beale  surveyed  a  waggon- 
road  along  the  35th  parallel  for  the  Government,  and  Johnson, 
in  his  steamer,  the  General  Jesup,  went  up  from  Yuma  early 
in   January,    1858,  to  ferry  Beale   across  on  his  return  from 

^  Being  desirous  of  securing  details  of  Johnson's  operations,  and  finding  that  he 
was  still  living  in  California,  T  wrote  to  him  about  a  year  ago  requesting  informa- 
tion particularly  on  certain  main  facts.  Instead  of  giving  it  to  me,  he  replied  that 
he  would  soon  publish  a  book  in  which  I  would  find  all  the  points,  and  referred 
me  to  that.  He  died  soon  after,  and  I  have  not  been  able  to  get  track  of  the 
book. 


Lieutenant  Ives  317 

California.  Before  meeting  Beale,  Johnson  pushed  his  steamer 
experimentally  on  up  the  river  to  the  head  of  Black  Canyon, 
the  highest  point  attainable  by  steamers  under  the  most 
favourable  conditions.  He  did  this -to  expressly  anticipate 
the  exploration  planned  by  Lieutenant  Ives,  of  the  Topograph- 
ical Engineers,  who,  the  month  before,  December,  1857,  ^^^^ 
landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  with  sections  of  a  steamboat, 
The  Explorer,  built  in  Philadelphia,  with  which  he  intended 
to  find  the  head  of  navigation  and  also  map  the  river.  Ives 
conducted  this  survey  with  skill  and  accuracy,  and  while  John- 
son's manoeuvre  took  from  him  the  distinction  of  first  ascent, 
nevertheless  he  remains  the  first  explorer  of  the  river  in  this 
region.  He  went  to  the  foot  of  Black  Canyon  with  his  steamer 
and  thence  to  the  head  of  Black  Canyon  with  a  small  boat. 
He  visited  the  Grand  Canyon  at  the  mouth  of  Diamond  Creek, 
the  Havasupai  Canyon,  and  also  the  Moki  Towns.  His  re- 
port is  a  model  of  graceful  diction,  but  many  of  the  illustra- 
tions are  preposterous.  In  1866  Captain  Rodgers  took  the 
steamer  Esmeralda,  ninety-seven  feet  long,  drawing  three  and 
a  half  feet  of  water,  up  to  Callville,  not  far  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Virgin. 

The  Mormons  were  desirous  of  opening  a  road  to  communi- 
cate with  the  region  east  and  south  of  the  Colorado,  especially 
that  the  "Lamanites"  might  be  able  to  come  from  there  and 
receive  endowments  in  the  temple  of  St.  George  according  to 
prophecy.  Brigham  Young  directed  Jacob  Hamblin  to  under- 
take this  journey,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1857  he  went  with  a 
party  under  the  guidance  of  a  native  to  the  Ute  Ford,  or 
Crossing  of  the  Fathers,  where  Escalante  had  broken  the  way 
eighty-one  years  before.  Successfully  traversing  this  difficult 
passage,  possible  only  at  a  very  low  stage  of  water,  he  and  his 
eleven  companions  reached  the  Moki  Towns  in  safety.  /  Nearly 
every  autumn  after  this  saw  Jacob  wending  his  way  to  the 
sanae  region,  but  not  always  without  disaster.  In  i860  the 
party  was  turned  back  south  of  the  river  and  one  of  their  num- 
ber, young  Smith,  killed  by  the  Navajos.  In  1862  Jacob  tried 
another  route  to  reach  the  same  locality,  going  to  the  Colorado 
by  way  of  the  Grand  Wash,  south-westerly  from  St.  George. 


3^8  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

At  the  river  they  built  a  boat  and  safely  passed  over.  Then 
they  went  south  and  east  below  the  great  chasm  to  the  San 
Francisco  Mountains,  suffering  greatly  for  water  in  that  arid 
region.  Crossing  the  Little  Colorado  they  finally  arrived  at 
the  towns  of  the  Mokis.  But  on  the  return  J  acob  followed  his 
original  route  by  way  of  the  Crossing  of  the  Fathers,  and  was 
thus  the  first  white  man  to  circumtour  the  Grand  Canyon. 
The  next  year  he  went  again  by  the  Grand  Wash  trail,  touched 
at  Havasupai  Canyon,  and  arrived  once  more  among  the 
friendly  Mokis,  three  of  whom  had  accompanied  him  back  to 
Utah  on  the  last  trip.  On  this  1863  journey  he  was  accom- 
panied by  Lewis  Greeley,  a  nephew  of  Horace  Greeley,  who 
had  come  down  from  Salt  Lake  with  letters  from  Brigham 
Young.  It  was  not  till  six  years  later  that  a  crossing  was 
made  at  the  mouth  of  the  Paria,  now  Lee  Ferry,  still  the  chief, 
I  might  almost  say,  the  only  available  crossing  between  Grand 
Wash  and  Gunnison  Valley.  Jacob  Hamblin  was  the  first  to 
go  that  way.  The  river  is  deep  and  a  raft  or  boat  is  necessary 
to  transport  goods. 

In  seeking  a  hiding-place  John  D.  Lee  found  this  point  de- 
sirable and  settled  there  early  in  1872,  building  a  log  cabin  and 
cultivating  some  ground.  He  began  the  ferry  by  helping 
several  persons  across  the  river,  the  first  being  J.  H.  Beadle, 
who  had  written  a  severe  denunciation  of  hfm.  Lee  told  me 
he  discovered  Beadle's  identity,  but  I  have  forgotten  exactly 
how.  Lee  called  the  place  "Lonely  Dell,"  and  it  was  a  name 
well  applied,  for  the  precipices  of  naked  rock  rose  high  on  every 
side,  and  about  a  hundred  miles  separated  the  locality  from 
Kanab,  the  nearest  settlement  of  any  consequence. 

Though  the  canyons  of  the  Colorado  had  now  been  crossed 
midway  of  the  great  six-hundred-mile  stretch,  and  farther 
north  near  Green  River  Valley  had  far  back  in  the  century 
been  penetrated  to  a  limited  extent,  almost  nothing  was 
actually  known  about  them.  Even  at  the  most  favourable 
points  approach  to  the  brink  was  extremely  difficult,  and  de- 
scent to  the  water  generally  impossible.  On  each  side  the 
country  was  for  many  miles  forbidding  wilderness,  for  the 
journeys  of  the  trappers,  where  they  had  penetrated,  had  left 


«  < 


5    ^ 

;3  « 


<u     P. 


320  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

no  impression.  It  was  as  if  no  white  man  had  ever  looked 
upon  it.  They  were  thus  the  final  great  problem  of  the  Wil- 
derness. A  stout  heart  was  required  to  launch  forth  into  their 
unfathomed  mystery,  particularly  as  by  this  time  numerous 
tales  of  underground  channels,  fearful  cataracts,  and  chasms 
impossible  of  passage,  went  the  rounds  of  the  camp-fires.  For 
a  time  the  Civil  War  withdrew  attention  from  Western  explora- 
tion, but  when  it  was  ended  one  of  the  officers,  who  had  gone 
through  the  weary  four  years,  and  who  wore  in  consequence 
an  armless  right  sleeve,  turned  his  attention  once  more  to  his 
scientific  studies,  and  finally  found  himself,  in  1867,  exploring 
in  the  Parks  of  Colorado.  Here  he  learned  of  the  wonderful 
and  forbidding  canyons  of  the  great  river,  saw  some  of  the 
minor  tributary  gorges,  and  also  met  and  employed  a  rare 
mountaineer,  Jack  Sumner,  also  a  veteran  of  the  Civil  War. 
Sumner  says  he  suggested  to  Powell  the  descent  of  the  can- 
yons. At  any  rate,  Powell  became  enthused  with  a  desire  to 
explore  this  remnant  of  the  original  Wilderness,  and  Sumner 
was  a  more  than  willing  companion  in  the  scheme.  Organising 
an  expedition  Powell  started  from  Green  River  Station, 
Wyoming,  in  the  same  valley  where  the  early  trappers  had  so 
often  made  their  rendezvous,  and  which  had  also  been  the 
resting-place  for  the  California  pioneers.  He  was  a  geologist 
and  his  experienced  eye  and  quick  judgment  doubtless  soon 
disclosed  to  him  the  probable  nature  of  the  interior  of  the  can- 
yons; the  probability  that  no  insurmountable  obstacle  existed 
to  prevent  his  triumphant  descent  through  the  whole  series. 
But  while  he  believed  the  canyon  mystery  could  be  solved  he 
went  at  it  with  no  spirit  of  bravado.  With  him  it  was  serious, 
scientific  business,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
geologic  and  geographic  character  of  the  mighty  gorges  in 
which  the  river  lost  itself.  As  the  difference  between  the 
altitude  of  Green  River  Station  and  that  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Virgin  was  known  to  be  some  five  thousand  feet,  there  was 
clearly  room  for  realisation  of  all  the  fantastic  tales  of  the 
mountaineers. 

On  May  29,  1869,  with  four  staunch  boats  built  in  Chicago, 
manned  by  nine  men  besides  Powell,  the  party  set  forth  on 


322  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

the  swift  current  from  Green  River,  Wyoming.  They  were 
soon  deep  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  canyon  wilderness  where 
the  plunging  river  roared  defiance.  As  has  before  been  men- 
tioned Ashley  had  passed  through  Red  Canyon,  one  of  the 
first  of,  the  great  gorges.  Meek  in  winter  on  the  ice  had  gone 
through  Lodore  and  the  gorges  just  below  it,  and  a  party  of 
trappers  had  been  wrecked  in  Lodore  in  attempting  the  de- 
scent. The  latter  made  their  way  to  Salt  Lake,  where  they 
worked  on  the  temple  which  the  Mormons  had  begun.  This 
canyon  of  Lodore  had  disaster  in  store  for  Powell  too.  One 
of  the  boats  was  wrecked,  though  fortunately  not  a  man  was 
injured;  but  the  accident  produced  trouble,  as  Powell  blamed 
some  of  the  men  for  blundering,  and  they  blamed  him  for  fail- 
ing to  signal  in  time. 

When  they  reached  Wonsits  Valley  one  of  the  men,  Good- 
man, who  was  in  the  wreck,  decided  that  he  had  had  enough 
of  this  river  and  made  his  way  across  country  to  the  Uinta 
Agency.  The  precipices  soon  closed  in  again  to  form  the 
ninety-seven  miles  of  the  Canyon  of  Desolation,^  immediately 
followed  by  thirty-six  miles  now  called  Gray  Canyon  before 
an  opening  occurred.  This  opening  was  Gunnison  Valley, 
through  which  Wolfskill  in  1830  had  led  the  way,  breaking 
the  "Spanish  Trail"  to  California.  It  is  from  this  point  down- 
ward for  six  hundred  miles  that  no  opening  occurs  in  the  cliffs 
that  bound  the  river.  They  become  higher  or  lower,  slightly 
farther  apart  or'nearer  together,  and  there  are  lateral  canyons, 
and  minor  breaks,  of  course,  but  there  is  no  valley  along  the 
river,  and  in  places  for  miles  on  either  side  the  surface  of  the 
country  is  only  barren  sandstone.  The  cliffs  reach  altitudes 
of  three,  four,  and  five  thousand  feet  above  the  water  of  the 
river.  In  these  great  depths  men  are  as  completely  shut  away 
from  the  world  as  if  they  were  in  the  very  bowels  of  the  globe. 

After  passing  through  Labyrinth  and  Stillwater  canyons 
the  Powell  party  found  themselves  at  the  mouth  of  Grand 
River,  which  entered  the  main  stream  in  a  canyon  thirteen 

'  For  a  list  of  the  canyons  in  their  sequence,  with  declivity,  altitudes,  height 
of  walls,  etc.,  see  Appendix,  The  Romance  of  the  Colorado  River,  by  F.  S. 
Dellenbaugh. 


324  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

hundred  feet  deep,  and  they  were  at  the  same  time  in  the  head 
of  another  great  gorge,  later  named  Cataract  Canyon.  Any 
one  who  follows  their  trail  will  admit  the  appropriateness  of 
this  title.  The  length  is  forty-one  miles,  the  walls  reach  an 
altitude  of  twenty-seven  hundred  feet  at  the  highest,  and  in 
some  of  the  bends  are  so  straight  as  to  give  an  impression  of 
overhanging  the  spectator's  head  as  he  peers  aloft  from  his 
boat  to  the  sky  so  far  above.  At  least  that  was  the  impres- 
sion I  received.  The  verticality  of  the  rocks  was  greater  to 
my  eye  here  than  at  any  other  point.  For  some  distance  the 
declivity  of  the  river  bed  is  the  sharpest  on  the  whole  course, 
and  this  with  the  narrowness  of  the  canyon  began  to  disturb 
Powell  and  lead  him  to  fear  that  some  of  the  stories  of  impass- 
able falls  might  be  true.  Fortunately  no  insurmountable  ob- 
struction was  encountered,  and  they  swept  triumphantly  on 
through  Narrow  Canyon  and  Glen  Canyon  to  the  head  of 
Marble,  the  real  beginning  of  the  greatest  gorge  of  all,  at  the 
point  where  Jacob  Hamblin  crossed  a  month  or  two  later  in  the 
same  year,  and  which  to-day  is  known  as  Lee  Ferry. 

Now  there  was  before  the  party  the  greatest  continuous 
chasm  on  the  globe,  Marble-Grand,  almost  three  hundred  miles 
in  length  as  the  river  flows.  Here  they  met  with  the  hardest 
work  and  greatest  danger.  They  became  worn  out ;  food  grew 
scarce,  for  accidents  and  wetting  had  reduced  too  rapidly  the 
original  supply.  Then  it  seemed  as  if  they  could  not  proceed, 
and  the  men  who  had  been  wrecked  in  Lodore  were  not  recon- 
ciled. Another  joined  them  and,  discontented,  the  three  re- 
fused to  attempt  a  particularly  bad  rapid.  They  climbed  to 
the  plateau  and  were  killed  by  the  natives  not  far  from  Mount 
Dellenbaugh.  The  others,  nerving  themselves  for  a  desperate 
struggle,  passed  the  bad  place,  swept  on  through  more,  and 
emerged  triumphant  the  next  day,  at  noon,  August  29,  1869, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Grand  Wash,  and  the  end  of  the  Grand 
Canyon.  The  victory  was  won  —  the  last  problem  of  the 
Wilderness  was  broken ! 

From  this  point  down  the  river  was  known.  Jacob  Ham- 
blin with  several  others  had  passed  from  here  by  boat  to  Call- 
ville.  and  thence  to  the  sea  Ives  had  explored  as  already  noted. 


Sumner  to  Tidewater  325 

It  was  a  dramatic  triumph  over  the  angry  and  rock-walled 
stream  which  for  three  hundred  and  twenty-nine  years,  since 
the  Spanish  captain,  Cardenas,  first  looked  into  the  deeps  of 
the  Grand  Canyon,  had  defied  mankind.  Powell  and  his  men 
were  nearly  exhausted  by  starvation-diet  and  exposure,  but  the 
exhilaration  of  success  sustained  them,  and  help  was  near. 
Brigham  Young,  hearing  rumours  of  disaster  to  the  expedition, 
had  sent  instructions  to  some  Mormons  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Virgin  to  keep  a  sharp  watch  for  wreckage  and  to  render  any 
assistance  possible,  and  also  for  extra  food  to  be  taken  there. 
The  day  after  emerging  from  the  great  gorge  they  came  to 
these  men,  Asa  and  his  two  sons,  and  enjoyed  abundance  of 
food  and  the  sight  once  more  of  friendly  faces  from  the  outer 
world.  The  following  day  Bishop  Leithead  and  two  or  three 
other  Mormons  arrived  in  a  waggon  with  more  supplies,  in- 
cluding some  fine  melons,  and  the  explorers  were  treated  with 
every  kindness. 

Powell  left  the  river  here,  but  Jack  Sumner  and  the  others, 
except  Walter  Powell,  went  on  down  by  river  to  Yuma 
where  Sumner  and  Andrew  Hall  wintered,  going  the  next 
year  to  the  Gulf,  the  first  and,  so  far  as  I  have  heard,  the 
only  human  beings  ever  to  accomplish  the  entire  voyage  from 
Green  River  Valley  to  tidewater.  Sumner  was  a  born  trapper, 
hunter,  and  prospector,  and  at  last  accounts  was  still  roaming 
the  mountains  engaged  in  these  pursuits,  another  of  those 
extraordinary  characters  that  belong  to  the  original  Wilder- 
ness and  will  never  live  again.  He  knew  Bridger,  Baker, 
Carson,  and  others  intimately  and  had  met  Fremont  and 
Bonneville.  ^ 

When  Powell,  with  his  brother  Walter,  arrived  at  St.  George 
he  went  immediately  to  the  post-office  eager  to  get  the  mail 
he  had  directed  to  be  sent  to  this  point. 

"By  whose  authority,"  indignantly  exclaimed  the  post- 
master, "do  you  come  here  asking  for  Major  Powell's  mail — 
Major  Powell  is  dead." 

"By  the  best  authority  in  the  world,"  returned  the  Major. 
*'I  am  Major  Powell." 

"But  Major  Powell  is  dead,"  reiterated  the  official.     Some- 

>  After  this  was  written  Sumner  died — in  1907. 


The  Iron  Trail  327 

thing  then  about  the  ragged,  haggard  man  shook  his  confi- 
dence.    He  said:  "What  evidence  have  you?" 

"This,"  replied  the  Major,  holding  up  the  empty  sleeve. 
"I  left  this  arm  at  Shiloh."     He  got- the  mail. 

Powell  would  hardly  have  been  able  so  speedily  and  suc- 
cessfully to  accomplish  this  feat  had  it  not  been  for  an  event 
which  was  contemporaneous, — the  construction  of  a  transcon- 
tinental railway.  This  enabled  him  easily  to  place  strong 
boats  and  supplies  on  the  banks  of  Green  River.  His  great 
voyage,  which  marks  the  end  of  the  Wilderness,  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  railway,  marking  the  beginning  of  an  entirely 
new  epoch,  occurred  the  same  year.  The  rivers  of  the  Wilder- 
ness were  not  available  for  practical  transportation.  Those 
east  of  the  Backbone  were  circuitous  and  for  the  most  part 
too  shallow  for  boats  of  much  draft ;  those  west  were  torrential. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  the  Iron  Trail.  In  the  search  for  the 
best  route  for  such  a  trail  to  bind  the  Hudson  to  the  Golden 
Gate  a  great  many  admirable  surveys  were  made.  Every  one 
of  the  expeditions  was  profoundly  interesting  and  intimately 
connected  with  Wilderness  breaking,  but  it  is  not  practicable 
here  to  describe  them. 

The  route  finally  selected  was  up  the  Platte,  across  Green 
River  Valley,  to  Salt  Lake,  down  the  Humboldt,  and  over 
the  Sierra  Nevada  to  Sacramento  and  San  Francisco.  The 
idea  of  putting  a  railway  through  the  Wilderness  was  early 
conceived,  but  owing  to  numerous  obstacles  and  difficulties 
as  to  route  to  be  followed  and  as  to  finances,  although  the 
numerous  surveys  were  made,  nothing  definite  was  done. 
As  far  back  as  1850  Senator  Benton,  of  Missouri,  introduced 
a  bill  authorising  portions  of  road  to  be  constructed  with  gaps 
where  it  was  supposed  a  line  was  not  possible.  In  1853  Con- 
gress appropriated  $150,000  for  six  surveys  to  be  executed  by 
the  War  Department.  The  next  year  $190,000  more  were  ap- 
propriated for  three  additional  surveys.  It  is  thus  apparent 
that  Congress  appreciated  the  importance  of  a  line  through 
the  Wilderness  which  should  bring  the  Pacific  Coast  with  its 
now  rapidly  developing  interests  closer  to  the  seat  of  Govern- 
ment.    In  the  dissension  which  began  to  rend  the  country 


328 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


concerning  the  slavery  question  and  State  rights,  there  was 
danger  of  secession  in  that  direction  as  well  as  at  the  South. 
The  military  importance  of  such  a  railway  was  beyond  discus- 
sion. General  Sherman,  who  knew  the  conditions  thoroughly 
and  had  gone  in  1846  to  California,  declared  the  Government 
could  well  afford  to  build  the  whole  line  and  would  make  money 


The  Thousand  Mile  Tree. 
A  hemlock  looo  miles  from  Omaha.     Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage, 


by  the  operation,  as  it  was  indispensable  for  the  transportation 
of  troops  and  supplies. 

In  July,  1862,  Congress,  though  burdened  with  the  terrific 
war  problem,  passed  the  Pacific  Railway  Bill  authorising  the 
construction  of  a  continuous  line  from  the  Missouri  River  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Two  private  companies  were  then  formed 
to  build  this  line — the  Union  Pacific  for  the  eastern  part  and 
the  Central  Pacific  for  the  western.  These  companies  were  to 
receive  Government  aid  as  follows:   i.   A  free  right  of  way  400 


Paying  for  the  Whistle 


329 


feet  wide.  2.  An  issue  of  Government  bonds  amounting  to 
one  half  the  cost  of  the  road.  3.  An  absolute  gift  of  ten 
alternate  sections  of  land  per  mile  (i2,8(X)  acres)  on  each  side 
of  the  line.  4.  Privilege  of  using  coal,  iron,  etc.,  from  the 
region  through  which  building  operations  extended.  5.  To 
receive  on  completion  of  continuous  sections  of  20  miles  the 
bonds    of   the    United    States    as    follows:    A.    Between    the 


Secret  Town  Trestle. 

1000  feet  long.     Maximum  height,  90  feet.     Photograph  by  C.  R.  Savage. 


Missouri  River  and  eastern  base  of  mountains,  about  650 
miles,  $16,000  a  mile.  B.  Across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  150 
miles,  $48,000  a  mile.  C.  Across  the  Great  Basin,  $32,000 
a  mile.  D.  Across  the  Sierra  Nevada,  150  miles,  $48,000  a 
mile.  E.  To  San  Francisco,  about  120  miles,  $16,000  a  mile. 
The  Government  also  obliged  itself  to  extinguish  the  title 
of  Amerinds  to  all  lands  donated.  The  State  of  California 
assumed  the  interest  for  twenty  years  on  $1,500,000  of  the 


330  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

Central  Pacific  bonds,  assistance  estimated  as  the  equivalent  of 
$3,000,000  in  gold.  San  Francisco  gave  $400,000  and  Sacra- 
mento donated  30  acres  of  land.  The  aggregate  of  land  given 
to  the  two  companies  was  ten  million  acres.  Thus  it  seems 
that  the  Government  practically  paid  for  the  whole  line.  It 
would  have  been  better  if  it  had  built  the  road  without  the 
intervention  of  the  companies.  About  two  miles  a  day  was 
made  in  track  building,  then  considered  rapid  work.  The 
chief  contractor  was  J.  S.  Casement,  and  William  Dodge  was 
chief  engineer.  The  workmen  lived  in  trains  which  were 
pushed  ahead  as  fast  as  the  road  advanced  and  were  supplied 
with  plenty  of  rifles  and  ammunition  for  protection  against  the 
Sioux  and  other  roaming  tribes.  These  hovered  about  like 
vultures,  choosing  opportune  moments  for  attack.  The  assist- 
ant engineer,  P.  T.  Browne,  with  his  party,  was  fired  on  sixty 
miles  west  of  North  Platte.  They  fought  for  about  two  hours 
against  seventy-five  natives.     Browne  was  killed. 

Sometimes  the  Amerinds  destroyed  the  track,  captured 
trains,  killed  engineers,  firemen,  brakemen,  and  telegraph  line- 
men. They  also  would  destroy  the  telegraph  line  and  carry 
off  the  wire.  In  fact,  they  were  a  constant  terror  and  menace. 
But  when  denouncing  them  nobody  remembers  the  swindles 
perpetrated  on  them  in  former  years,  nor  the  bad  whiskey 
which  impoverished  them  and  brutalised  them  and  won  their 
furs  for  a  bagatelle.  Their  attitude  was  largely  the  result  of 
the  earlier  treatment  they  had  received  from  the  whites,  as 
well  as  of  all  the  bad  white  blood  which  had  been  infused  into 
the  tribes.  One  of  the  worst  affairs  was  the  Plum  Creek  mas- 
sacre. William  Thompson,  an  Englishman,  a  telegraph  man, 
was  sent  out  with  a  party  of  five  to  hunt  up  a  break.  They 
started  about  nine  o'clock  one  evening  and  when  they  reached 
the  place  a  pile  of  ties  was  discovered  on  the  track  for  the 
purpose  of  wrecking  a  supply  train  nearly  due.  Barely  had 
this  discovery  been  made  when  Thompson  and  his  men  were 
attacked  by  the  enemy.  They  fired  back  and  then  ran.  One 
of  the  natives  on  a  horse  pursued  Thompson,  shot  him  through 
the  arm,  and  then  knocked  him  down  with  a  clubbed  rifle. 
Next  he  stabbed  him  in  the  neck  to  finish  him,  and  immedi- 


Scalped  Alive 


331 


ately  began  the  operation  of  removing  Thompson's  scalp.  As 
Thompson  was  far  from  dead  the  prospect  was  not  agreeable, 
but  a  movement  would  have  brought  death.  His  only  chance 
was  to  keep  quiet  and  let  the  work  go  on,  and  he  was  able  to 
do  this  notwithstanding  the  pain.  But  when  the  scalp  was 
jerked  loose  he  thought  his  whole  head  was  off,  and  then  felt 
as  if  a  red-hot  iron  had  been  passed  over  his  crown. 


Snow  Sheds  in  the  Sierra. 

Photograph  by  C   R   Savage. 


The  native  tucked  the  scalp  in  his  belt  and  mounting  rode 
hastily  away,  but  in  doing  so  dropped  the  scalp  and  its  owner 
picked  it  up.  Thompson  was  obliged  to  remain  quiet  while 
the  band  piled  more  ties  on  the  track.  Presently  he  heard  the 
distant  rumble  of  the  train.  It  was  impossible  to  do  anything 
to  prevent  the  wreck.  In  a  few  moments  the  cars  were  piled 
in  a  heap.  The  engineer  and  fireman  were  shot  and  scalped; 
the  train  was  ransacked  by  the  light  of  a  huge  fire.     A  barrel 


# 

332 


Breaking  the  Wilderness 


of  whiskey  was  opened  and  all  got  drunk.  When  daybreak 
came  they  set  the  whole  wreck  on  fire  and  gleefully  danced 
around  it.  When  they  were  finally  gone  from  the  scene 
Thompson  crawled  away  and  at  length  reached  Willow  Island 
station,  where  a  rescuing  party  found  him.  People  came  from 
all  around  to  see  his  ghastly  baldness.  He  was  taken  to  a 
hotel  where  a  doctor  dressed  his  wound.  "In  a  pail  of  water 
was  his  scalp,  about  nine  inches  in  length  and  four  in  width, 
somewhat  resembling  a  drowned  rat  as  it  floated  curled  up  on 
the  water. "  Such  were  the  incidents  due  to  the  wild  tribes 
which  constantly  harassed  the  builders  of  this  iron  trail. 


Adobe  Ruins  of  Green  River — Union  Pacific  Terminus. 
Photograph,  1871,  by  E.  O.  Beaman,  U.  S.  Colo.  Riv.  Exp. 

But  these  savages  were  little  worse  than  those  who  com- 
posed a  large  part  of  the  population  of  each  terminus.  They 
had  different  methods,  that  was  all.  Whiskey  flowed  free  and 
drunkenness  was,  as  usual  with  our  European  race,  the  great 
recreation.  Gambling  dives  and  grog  shops  made  up  a  large 
part  of  the  mushroom  town  that  grew  up  at  each  official  end 
of  the  track.  All  manner  of  people,  like  birds  of  prey,  flocked 
to  these  places  to  secure  a  share  of  the  money  paid  to  the 
workers,  who  were  numbered  by  thousands.  Some  buildings 
were  fairly  substantial,  but  there  were  many  that  were  merely 
board  sides  with  a  canvas  roof.     Others  were  "dugouts,"  that 


^  P^ 


S  o 


334  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

is,  holes  in  the  ground  roofed  over  with  sticks  and  earth;  in  a 
side  hill  if  possible.  There  were  large  numbers  of  tents. 
Where  there  were  vertical  clay  banks  along  a  dry  water  course, 
or  a  stream,  these  were  burrowed  into  near  the  top,  a  square 
chamber  being  made  seven  or  eight  feet  long,  five  or  six  high, 
and  four  or  five  deep,  the  outer  side  being  closed  by  a  blanket 
or  canvas  hung  from  the  upper  edge.  Rents  were  high  and 
any  shelter  at  all  was  valuable. 

From  time  to  time,  as  progress  of  the  line  demanded,  the 
official  terminus  was  moved  on.     From  Grand  Island  it  jumped 


The  Ames  Monument — Union  Pacific  Railway. 

Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 

to  North  Platte,  then  to  Julesburg,  then  to  Cheyenne,  and  so 
on,  in  some  cases  leaving  a  permanent  town  of  considerable 
proportions  behind.  In  the  case  of  Cheyenne  a  city  of  five 
thousand  sprang  out  of  nothing,  and  there  were  three  news- 
papers; but  in  some  instances  the  advance  left  behind  only  a 
wreck  looking  as  if  a  tornado  had  swept  that  way.  Remnants 
of  old  clothes,  boards,  straw,  broken  furniture,  thousands  of 
tin  cans,  empty  bottles,  etc.,  strewed  the  ground  in  all  direc- 
tions. At  Green  River  a  number  of  adobe  houses  were  built, 
the  ruins  of  which  were  still  standing  at  the  time  of  my  first 
visit  to  that  locality  in  1871.      Even  two  or  three  miles  up  the 


The  Last  Tie. 


336  Breaking  the  Wilderness 

track  I  found  dugouts  and  a  large  amount  of  wreckage  to  re- 
mind one  of  the  late  "prosperity."     The  life  at  these  places 

had  all  the  most  vicious 
qualities  of  our  civilisa- 
tion, and  few  of  its  good 
ones.  There  were  no 
policemen,  and  the  state 

Union  Pacific  Railway,  1869.     Made  of  California  r    J'         J  U       ' 

laurel,  polished,  and  with  a  silver  plate  on  the  side.        Ol    dlSOrder     may    be    im- 
agined.    It  was  a  feverish 
nightmare  of  horrors,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  sobriety  of  the 
life  the  Mormons  brought  to  the  Wilderness. 

Three  years  after  the  beginning  of  the  great  work,  which  it 
was  thought  would  require  ten,  the  day  came  when  the  cere- 
mony was  to  be  performed  that  should  complete  the  engineer- 
ing triumph.  On  May  10,  1869,  two  engines  at  Promontory 
Point,  Utah,  were  brought  head  to  head,  a  half-world  at  each 
back,  as  Bret  Harte  said,  only  a  small  space  intervening,  where 
the  crowd  gathered  to  witness  the  driving  of  the  last  spike 
which  should  bring  far  seas  together  and  mark  an  end  and  a 
beginning.  There  was  a  prayer  by  the  Reverend  Doctor  Todd. 
The  last  tie,  of  California  laurel,  beautifully  polished  and  bear- 
ing on  one  side  a  silver  plate  with  names  of  officers  engraved 
upon  it,  was  then  laid.  Two  rails  were  next  placed  opposite 
each  other,  one  for  the  Union,  the  other  for  the  Central 
Pacific.  Following  this  was  a  presentation  of  spikes  on  the 
part  of  California,  Nevada,  and  Arizona.  Governor  Stanford 
responded  for  the  Central  Pacific,  and  General  Dodge  for  the 
Union  Pacific.  With  a  silver  hammer  for  driving  the  last 
spike,  presented  by  the  Union  Express  Company,  Governor 
Stanford  stood  on  the  south  rail,  while  Dr.  Durant,  to  drive 
another,  stood  on  the  north  one.  At  a  signal  that  the  tele- 
graph was  ready  these  spikes  were  driven,  the  last  one,  the 
golden  spike  of  the  Central  Pacific,  being  connected  with  the 
telegraph  so  that  the  strokes  of  Stanford's  hammer  were  re- 
peated all  over  the  country,  and  at  the  final  blow  "done"  was 
sent  to  the  waiting  world.  The  crowd  cheered ;  Dr.  Durant 
and  Governor  Stanford  shook  hands.  Telegrams  of  congratu- 
lation were  received.     General  Dodge,  the  engineer  in  chief, 


The  Last  Spike 


337 


and  Jack  and  Dan  Casement,  the  chief  contractors,  were  the 
heroes  of  the  hour.      The  work  was  finished. 

The  operation  of  building  this  line  partly  belongs  to  the 
romantic  period  of  Breaking  the  Wilderness,  but  when  that  last, 
spike  of  gold  was  sent  home  and  the  engines  met 
upon  the  rails  a  new  and  different  epoch  began. 
Scarcely  less  fascinating,  up  to  this  moment,  have 
been  its  events,  but  this  volume  is  not  for  them. 
The  trail  of  the  iron  horse,  which  would  anni- 
hilate the  vast  distances  of  the  Wilderness,  where 
the  life  blood  of  so  many  had  softened  the  way, 
was  an  accomplished  fact.  The  new  era  was  at 
hand.  Europe  and  Cathay  stood  at  last  face  to 
face,  in  the  midst  of  that  once  "  northern 
mystery"  which  was  the  dream  of  the  gold- 
hunting  CO nquist adore.  The  Seven  Cities  of 
Cibola  had  long  ago  vanished,  but  the  rich  cities 
of  the  Republic  were  building  in  their  place,  and  wealth  be- 
yond the  wildest  imagination  of  the  early  adventurers  was 
now  to  flow  from  every  corner  of  the  broken  Wilderness. 


The  Last  Spike. 
Union  Pacific 

Railway. 
Made  of  gold. 


0*^- 


A  Modem  Fast  Train. 
From  Wonderland,  igoi.     Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


The  Mormon  Temple— Salt  Lake  City. 
Photograph  by  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh. 


338 


Acadia,  130 

Acoma,  114 

Acuco,  1 1 2 

Adiazen  stock,  location  of,  68 

Adams  River,  250 

Adobe  concrete,  68 

Adopted  men  become  chiefs,  84 

Adoption,  Amerind  system  of,  84 

Aggnt  cuts  off  native's  ears,  269 

Agriculture,  early,  in  New  Mexico, 

267 
Aguardiente,  268 
Aguilar  goes  north  of  Mendocino  to 

great  river,  142 
Alargon,  Hernando  de,  goes  up  the 

coast,  40;  discovers  the  Colorado, 

III 
Alaska  boundary,  254 
Alcarez,  Captain,  meets  Cabeza  de 

Vaca,  loi 
Alcohol,  94;  sold  to  natives,  179 
Algonquin  stock,  63 ;  range  of,  64 
Allencaster,  governor  of  New  Mex- 
ico, 191 
Alta  California,   120;  Missions  first 

planted  there,  122 
Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de   Vaca,    2, 

104,  106,  107,  108-111 
Ameies,     villages     of,     found     by 

Espejo,  114 
American  Fur  Company,  organised, 

197;  rendezvous  in  Green  River 

Valley,  275;  comes  near  ruin  in 

the  whiskey-still  matter,  286 
American  River,  gold  discovery  on, 

308 
Americans  attack  Juan  Jose,  265  ; 

barred  from  Oregon,  289 
American  settlers  in  California,  308; 

ships  on  the  Pacific  coast,  146 
Amerind,  132;    adoption,    84;    at- 


tacks on  Pacific  Railway  con- 
structors, 330;  believed  by  the 
Mormons  to  be  descended  from 
some  of  those  dispersed  at  the 
Tower  of  Babel,  304;  beverages, 
70;  bread,  72;  ceremonials,  72; 
character  of,  12,  56;  colour  of,  54; 
cooking,  how  done,  72;  cruelty, 
100;  destroy  railway  property, 
330;  domestic  animals  of,  56; 
dress,  88;  dwellings,  68;  eating  of 
human  flesh,  79;  explanation  of 
term,  54;  fear  of  camera,  92  ;  hos- 
pitality, 82  ;  jargons,  63  ;  kindness 
of,  88 ;  knowledge  of  the  Wilder- 
ness, 89,  168;  knowledge,  102; 
languages,  61 ;  linguistic  map,  62  ; 
manufactures,  70;  map  drawing, 
89;  marriage,  82;  method  of  ex- 
pressing astonishment,  292; 
musical  instruments  of,  72;  of 
Louisiana,  p^oes  to  the  Columbia, 
140;  of  the  Wilderness,  63;  sense 
of  humour,  93  ;  sign  language,  62 ; 
shooters,   278  ;  women,  place  of, 

Amerinds,  classification  by  lan- 
guage, 60;  removed  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  60;  shot  for  sport, 
277.278,280;  subsistence  of ,  7 5  ; 
three  conditions  of,  75;  titles  to 
railway  lands  extinguished,  329; 
tobacco,  kinds  of,  79;  traits,  57; 
treatment  of,  by  whites,  60,  243; 
understanding  of  territorial  lim- 
its of,  89 ;  unit  of  organisation,  82  ; 
winter  life  of,  92;  words  derived 
from  languages  of,  79 

Ames  monument,  334 

Anian,  Strait  of,  142;  a  myth,  147 

Anza,  Captain,  journey  of,  124;  to 
San  Francisco  Bay,  124 

Apache,  266. 


33Q 


340 


Index 


Apache  tribe,  where  classed,  6i,  66; 
like  the  Iroquois,  66;  punished 
by  Spanish  expeditions,  117 

Apaches,  kill  one  of  Pattie  ad- 
vance party,  248;  become  deadly 
enemies  of  Americans,  265 

Arapaho  tribe,  where  classed,  64; 
visit  Stuart 's  camp,  218;  hostility 
of,  243;  scalped  by  whites,  296 

Arc  tribe,  139 

Area  owned  by  United  States  after 
Mexican  treaty  of  1848,  301 

Arikara  tribe,  where  classed,  64 

Arkansas  River,  6 ;  Bell  goes  down 
it,  226;  boundary  of  Louisiana, 
221;  proper  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation of  the  word,  225 

Armijo,  governor  of  New  Mexico, 
265  ;  imposes  heavy  tax  on  Amer- 
ican goods,  238 

Army  sent  to  Utah,  310 

Arroyo  del  Cibolo,  named  by  Esca- 
lante,  36 

Asa,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Virgin, 
helps  Powell,  325 

Ashley,  232,  271;  arrives  at  St. 
Lou:s,  242  ;  battle  with  Arikaras, 
234;  becomes  rich,  242;  boats 
used  by,  238;  builds  fort  on  the 
Yellowstone,  233;  canyons  trav- 
ersed by,  295;  comes  out  into 
Brown's  Park,  240;  decade,  the, 
233;  descends  Green  River 
through  Red  Canyon,  238; 
elected  member  of  Congress,  232, 
244;  Fall,  240;  first  to  navigate 
Green  River,  238;  goes  to  Salt 
Lake,  240;  his  methods,  259; 
home  in  St.  Louis,  244;  Lake, 
242;  loses  boats,  239;  made  a 
brigadier-general,  232 ;  made  lieu- 
tenant-governor, 232;  meets 
General  Atkinson,  242 ;  meets 
Ogden  at  Salt  Lake,  240;  meets 
Provost  in  Brown's  Park,  240; 
name  record  in  Red  Canyon, 
facsimile  of,  240;  organisation, 
258;  parts  from  his  men,  244; 
second  trip  to  the  mountains, 
242;  sells  out,  244;  takes  cannon 
to  Utah  Lake,  272;  through 
Flaming  Gorge,  294;  writes  his 
name  in  Red  Canyon,  240 

Assiniboine,  British  trading  posts 
on,  158 

Assiniboine,  steamboat,  285 

Asuncion,  Bahia  de  la,  142 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  his  opinion  of 


the  sale  of  Astoria,  219;  organises 
American  Fur  Company,  197;  or- 
ganises    Pacific    Fur    Company, 
198 
Astoria,  Irving's  work,  cited,  287 
Astoria,  Captain  Biddle  takes  pos- 
session,   219;    enterprise    ended, 
219;  Hunt  arrives,   214;  named, 
200;     Prevost     receives     actual 
transfer  back  to  United  States, 
219;  rebuilt,  283;  renamed  Fort 
George,  218;  restored  to  United 
States,   219;    sold  to  Northwest 
Company,  218;  taken  by  British, 
218 
Astronomer  of  Ingolstadt,  124 
Athabasca    country,    changes     in, 

34 
Athapascan  stock,  range  of,  64 
Atkinson,  General,  242 
Atole,  Mexican  drink,  268 
Attacapan  stock,  location  of,  68 
Austin  leads  in  the  colonisation  of 

Texas,  298 


Bac,   San  Xavier  del,   Mission  of, 

124 
Bahia  de  la  Asuncion,  142 
Baird  to  Santa  Fe,  181 2,  257 
Balboa,  cited  by  Fremont,  300 
Baldwin,  Doctor,  with  Long,  223 
Bandelier,  A.  F.,  paper;  on  Cabeza 

de  Vaca,   106;  on  Villazur,   134; 

site  for  Tiguex,  114 
Bar  of  the  Columbia,  142 
Baranof,  Hunt  visits,  215;    Castle, 

215 

Battle,  first,  between  natives  and 
Europeans  in  the  Wilderness, 
no;  between  Comanches  and 
lotans,  247;  of  Pierre's  Hole,  273; 
of  San  Jacinto,  298;  of  Shiloh 
compared  with  Amerind  warfare, 
7  2 ;  with  Comanches  and  Kiowas, 
262 

Battles  of  the  Fur  Companies,  240; 
of  the  Wilderness  compared  with 
Amerind  warfare,  72 

Beadle,  J.  H.,  ferried  over  Colorado 
by  Lee,  318 

Beale,  E.  F.,  316 

Beale's  Road,  316 

Bear  River,  search  for  mouth  of, 
242 


Index 


341 


Beauharnois,  139 

Beaver,  anatomy,  16;  as  a  pet,  31; 
bait,  29;  bank  burrows,  17; 
Bradbury's  views  on  their,  tree 
felling,  2  7 ;  capture  of,  in  bank 
burrows,  31;  castoreum,  27; 
chips,  25  ;  colour  of,  13  ;  cry  of,  31 ; 
dams,  18,  21;  disappearance,  28, 
244,  273,  294,  302,  304;  education 
of  the  young,  28;  explanation  of 
half-cut  trees,  28;  family,  mem- 
bers of,  31 ;  food,  16;  for  an  em- 
blem, 31 ;  form  of  dams,  21 ;  fur 
of,  13;  gentts  of ,  16;  incentive  to 
exploration,  12  ;  in  the  water,  24; 
intellectuality,  17;  intelligence, 
13;  kind  of  frees  chosen,  27; 
lodges,  construction  of,  21 ;  lodges 
chopped  open  in  winter,  31; 
meadows,  24;  meat,  25;  mental 
qualities,  1 6 ;  methods,  1 6 ;  method 
of  building,  1 8 ;  methods  of  cap- 
ture other  than  with  traps,  29- 
31 ;  method  of  cutting,  25  ;  musk, 
musk-bogs,  27;  nature  of,  31; 
never  found  in  deep  canyons, 
17;  never  steps  backwards,  31; 
numbers  of,  12;  number  trapped 
in  a  single  night ,  1 5 ,  1 8 ;  on  Green 
River  in  187 1,  24;  on  upper  Mis- 
souri, Lewis  and  Clark  Expedi- 
tion, 164;  order  to  which  it  be- 
longs, 13  ;  outcast,  31 ;  ponds,  21 ; 
reduction  of  numbers,  26 ;  sample 
of  tree-gnawing,  26;  search  for 
beaver  grounds,  29;  signal  of 
alarm,  24;  size  of,  13;  size  of 
trees  felled,  27;  spillways,  20; 
tail,  description  of,  24;  tail  soup, 
25;  taming  of,  31;  testing  for 
traps,  28;  time  able  to  remain 
under  water,  27;  time  required 
to  fell  tree,  27;  trappers'  stories, 
2 1 ;  trapping,  profits  of,  15;  trap- 
ping responsible  for  breaking 
trails,  304;  traps,  28;  weight  of, 
13;  winter  food,  21;  works  ex- 
ecuted by,  16 

Beaver,  Astoria  supply  ship,  215 
J  Beaver  Dam  Mountains,  309 
^  Becknell,   William,   goes  to  Santa 
Fe,  182 1,  257;  goes  west  of  Santa 
Fe,  249;  used^ waggons  to  Santa 
Fe,  272 

Beckwourth,  James  P.,  263;  a  chief 
of  the  Crows,  238;  age  of,  238; 
character  of,  238;  with  Ashley, 
237 


Beckwourth  and  Smith  make  a 
raid,  264 

Bell,  J.  R.,  Captain,  with  Long, 
223 

Beltran,  Friar,  goes  to  New  Mex- 
ico, 114 

Benavides,  route  of,  116 

Benton,  Senator,  meets  Fremont, 
300 

Bering  explores  from  Kamtchatka 
east  across  the  sea,  140 

Berkeley,  Hon.  Grantley  F.,  his 
description  of  marrow-bones,  41 ; 
his  love  for  marrow,  41 

Bernalillo  as  the  site  of  Tiguex,  114 

Berthoud,  E.  L.,  explores  road  from 
Denver  to  Salt  Lake,  315;  tries 
to  explore  Green  River,  314 

Beverages  of  Amerinds,  70 

Bible,  the  Mormon  view  of  it,  304 

Biddle,  Captain,  takes  formal  pos- 
session of  Astoria,  219 

Bidwell,  Captain,  cited,  278 

Bienville   founds  New  Orleans,  138 

Bierstadt,  picture  of  buffalo  hunt- 
ing referred  to,  40 

Big  Medicine  Canoe,  285 

Big  Thunder  Canoe,  285 

Big  trees,  8,  9 

Bighorn  Mountains,  207 

Bijeau,  Joseph,  guide  to  Long,  226 

Bill  Williams  Fork,  117 

Bison  Americanus,  32 

Bisonte,  Spanish  word  for  buffalo, 

34 
Bitter    Root    Range,    Lewis    and 

Clark  traverse  it,  169 
Bitter  Root  River,  169 
Black  Canyon,  Ives  goes  to  head  of, 

317;  Johnson  takes  steamer  to 

head  of,  317 
Black  Hills,  207;  Parker  goes  that 

way,  287 
Blackfeet  a  scourge,  244;  attacked 

by  whites,  273;  hostility  of ,  243; 

likened  to  Iroquois,   244;   tribe, 

where  classed,  63 
Blankets  of  buffalo  wool  woven  by 

Osages,  50 
Blossom,   British  war  ship,  carries 

Prevost  to  Astoria,  219 
Blue  Mountains,  281;  Hunt  crosses 

them,  213;  Wyeth  crosses  them, 

275 
Boats  used  by  Ashley,  238 
Bodies   destroyed   by   wolves   and 

dogs,  99 
Boiling  Spring  Creek,  225 


342 


Index 


Bold,  The,  Crow  chief,  captures 
Meek,  291;  his  opinion  of  the 
whites,  291 

Bonneville,  Captain,  birth,  educa- 
tion, etc.,  270,  272  ;  as  a  manager, 
271;  portrait  of,  271;  granted 
leave  of  absence,  272;  starts, 
272;  outfit,  272;  his  waggons 
not  the  first  to  cross  the  plains, 
272;  did  not  lose  a  man,  272; 
route  of,  272;  takes  first  wag- 
gons as  far  as  Green  River, 
272;  builds  fort  at  Green  River, 
272;  fails  to  trade  with  natives, 
273;  goes  to  Salmon  River,  274; 
goes  to  Snake  River,  274;  ren- 
dezvous in  Green  River  Valley, 
275  ;  sends  furs  to  St.  Louis,  275  ; 
ignores  orders,  276 ;  dropped  from 
the  army,  276;  claims  discovery 
that  Buenaventura  River  was  a 
myth,  280;  crosses  Blue  Mount- 
ains, 281;  at  Nez  Perce  camp, 
281;  goes  to  the  Columbia,  281; 
cures  chief's  daughter,  281;  at 
Fort  Walla  Walla,  281;  goes 
again  to  the  Columbia,  282;  re- 
crosses  Blue  Mountains,  282, 
283 ;  refused  provisions  by  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  282;  declines 
guidance  of  Hudson  Bay  men, 
282;  back  at  Portneuf,  282;  fails 
to  get  a  footing  on  the  Columbia, 
283  ;  refused  provisions  a  second 
time  at  Walla  Walla,  284;  ap- 
plies his  name  to  Salt  Lake,  284; 
his  name  given  to  an  ancient  sea, 
284;  adjusts  his  affairs  and 
leaves  the  Wilderness,  284;  his 
failure,  284;  his.  maps  copied, 
284;  reinstated,  284;  serves  in 
Seminole  and  Mexican  wars,  284; 
made  brevet  brigadier-general, 
284;  dies,  284;  Irving's  work 
cited,  287 

Bonneville  Lake,  an  ancient  sea, 
284 

Book  of  Mormon,  304;  of  Doctrine 
and  Covenants,  305 

Boone,  Daniel,  age  of,  193;  at  La 
Charette,  193 

Boundary,  British  desire  to  make 
Columbia  River  the,  290;  ill-de- 
fined United  States  and  Mexican, 
3 1 5  ;  of  Louisiana,  2 20 ;  of  Oregon, 
289,  290 

Brackenridge,  Henry,  with  Lisa, 
206;  his  opinion  of  Lisa,  221 


Bradbury,  goes  with  Hunt,  204; 
leaves  Hunt  party,  207 ;  meets 
Colter,  196 ;  views  on  beaver  tree- 
felling,  27 

Bridger,  James,  232;  age  of,  234; 
with  Ashley,  234;  goes  to  Salt 
Lake,  242;  has  arrow  removed 
by  Whitman,  288;  extricates 
Meek,  293;  portrait  of,  293; 
makes  a  war  compact  with  The 
Bold,  294;  Fort,  309;  attempts 
to  explore  Green  River,  314; 
with  Berthoud  explores  road 
from  Denver  to  Salt  Lake,  315 

British- American  agreement  as  to 
Oregon  renewed,  253 

British,  on  Hudson  Bay,  136;  set- 
tlement on  James  River,  131; 
take  Astoria,  218 

Broughton  goes  up  the  Columbia, 
170 

Brown  bear,  fight  with,  164 

Brown's  Hole,  238 

Brown's  Park,  238;  position  of,  295 

Browne,  P.  T.,  killed  by  natives, 
330 

Buenaventura,  Escalante  crosses 
it,  124;  Escalante's  name  for 
Green  River,  124;  the  mythical 
outlet  of  Salt  Lake,  280 

Buffalo,  32;  numbers  of,  10,  32; 
range  of,  10,  34;  disappearing,  32, 
302  ;  in  Montezuma's  menagerie, 
32;  word  for,  in  Isleta  dialect, 
34;  oscillation  of  whole  mass  of 
buffalo,  34;  when  first  in  Atha- 
basca country,  34;  not  migra- 
tory, 34;  Coronado  sees  immense 
herds,  34;  on  Pecos  River,  34; 
sees  robes  at  first  villages,  34; 
city  of,  named  after,  35;  bones 
above  mastodon  bones,  35  ;  bones 
at  salt  licks  of  Ohio  valley,  and 
at  Big  Bone  Lick,  Kentucky,  35  ; 
in  Saskatchewan  country,  35; 
eastern  limit  of,  35  ;  Albert  Galla- 
tin lives  on  buffalo  meat,  35  ;  re- 
mains not  found  in  mounds  of 
Mississippi  valley,  35;  not  found 
on  Moundbuilder  pipes,  35  ;  prob- 
ability that  it  would  have  gone 
to  Alaska,  35;  in  Arizona,  36; 
limit  on  west,  36;  no  mention 
of  it  by  Lewis  and  Clark  west 
of  Rocky  Mountains,  36;  rock 
picture  of,  36;  seen  by  Escalante 
on  White  River,  36;  skull  found 
at  Gunnison,  37;  no  mention  of. 


Index 


343 


Buffalo — Continued 

by  Espejo  or  Onate  west  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  37;  south-western 
limit,  37;  did  not  cross  Rocky 
Mountains  north  of  57  degrees, 
3  7 ;  crosses  to  Green  and  Colum- 
bia, 37;  in  Missouri,  37;  earliest 
published  drawing  of,  38;  fossil 
remains,  38;  painted  by  Catlin, 
38 ;  prairie  buffalo,  38 ;  wood  buf- 
falo, 38;  western  range,  38;  by 
Bierstadt,  40 ;  wanton  killing,  42 ; 
herd,  advance  of,  44;  herds 
dashed  to  death,  44;  drowned  in 
river,  44 ;  shooting  from  railway 
trains,  44;  methods  of  hunting 
the,  45;  corral,  46;  dashed  over 
cliff,  46 ;  hides,  process  of  tanning, 
48;  hides,  value  of,  48;  hunting 
by  Washington  Irving,  48 ;  num- 
ber of  robes  sent  to  market,  48; 
stampede,  49;  wallows,  50;  wool 
woven  into  blankets  by  Osages, 
50;  dance,  51;  easily  domesti- 
cated, 51;  white  cow  skin  held 
sacred,  51;  calf  dangerous,  52; 
method  of  forcing  to  follow  horse, 
52;  as  an  emblem,  53;  followed 
by  wolves,  53;  Amerind  failure 
to  domesticate,  56;  blood  for 
drinking  water,  79;  seen  by 
Espejo,  116;  on  upper  Missouri, 
Lewis  and  Clark,  164 

Buildings  at  railway  terminals,  332 

Burr,  Aaron,  184 

Butler,  description  of  northland, 
40;  quoted,  146 

C 

Cabeza  de  Vaca,  2 ;  arrives  in  Mex- 
ico, 108 ;  crosses  the  Sierra  Madre, 
107;  cures  the  people,  106;  du- 
ration of  his  wanderings,  108; 
route  of,  108;  starts  west,  106; 
wrecked,  104 

Cabrillo  coasts  north  along  Cali- 
fornia, and  dies,  119 

Cache,  definition  of,  81 

Cactus,  blossoms  of,  10 

Caddo  tribe,  where  classed,  64 

Caddoan  stock,  location  of,  63 

Caldron  Linn,  210,  216 

California,  Gulf  of,  4;  aid  to  rail- 
ways, 329;  location  of,  8;  mis- 
sions, names  of,  number  of,  and 
when  founded,  122;  routes  to, 
309;  settlement,  120;  towns  of, 
captured  by  American  ships,  300 


Calif omian  stocks,  68 

Callville,  Rodgers  tak>es  steamer  to 
Callville,  317 

Campbell,  Robert  (name  also  given 
by  some,  Richard),  242;  awards 
discovery  of  Salt  Lake  to  Bridger, 
242  ;  from  Santa  Fe  to  San  Diego, 
257;  knew  the  Crossing  of  the 
Fathers,  314;  meets  Wyeth,  273; 
starts  with  Sublette  for  St. 
Louis,  274 

Canadian  voyageur,  129,  147 

Canyon,  Split  Mountain,  Whirlpool, 
294;  Desolation,  Gray,  Laby- 
rinth, Stillwater,  322;  Cataract, 
Grand,  Glen,  Marble,  Narrow, 
324;  Marble-Grand,  324,  325,  326 

Canyons  of  the  Colorado,  barrier  of, 
316,  322;  the  final  problem,  320 

Cape  Disappointment,  148 

Caravans  of  the  Santa  Pe  Trail, 
258,  259;  methods  of  forming 
camp,  260 

Cardenas,  goes  to  Tusayan,  no; 
first  to  see  the  Grand  Canyon, 
no;  time  between  first  sight  of 
the  Grand  Canyon  and  Powell's 
exploration  of  it,  325 

Carr(ptas,  Mexican  carts,  267 

Carson,  Alexander,  killed  Sioux  for 
fun,  58;  with  W.  P.  Hunt,  204 

Carson,  Kit  (Christopher),  232,  249, 
254;  character,  255;  fights  duel, 
288;  hunter  for  Fort  Davy 
Crockett,  255;  traps  down  the 
Gila   and    on    the    Sacramento, 

255 
Carthage  Jail,  Joseph  Smith  mur- 
dered there,  305 
Cartier,    discovers    Newfoundland, 

128;  up  the  St.   Lawrence,   128; 

to  site  of  Montreal,  130 
Carver,  Jonathan,  180;  tells  of  the 

river  Oregon,  140 
Casa   Grande,   ruins   of,    68;   Kino 

first  to  see,  120 
Cascade  range,  6 
Casement,   J.    S.,   chief  contractor 

Union  Pacific  Railway,  330,  337; 

Dan,  337  _ 

Castoreum,     nlusky     secretion     of 

beaver,  27;  used  as  bait,  27;  in 

medicine,  27 
Cataract  Canyon  on  the  Colorado 

River,  324;  name  carved  there, 

296 
Catholics  in  the  northern  Wilder- 
ness, 308 


344 


Index 


Catlin,  painted  buffalo,  etc.,  38;  on 

steamer  Yellowstone,  285 
Cavelier,  Robert,  Sieur  de  la  Salle, 

133 
Central  Pacific  Railway,  328 
Cerre,  with  Bonneville,  272 
Chaboillez,  Charles,  158;  sent  note 

to  Lewis,  163 
Chaboneau,    interpreter    to    Lewis 

and  Clark,  163;  Creek,  163 
Chambers  to  Santa  Fein  1812,  257 
Chamita,  site  of  Onate's  first  settle- 
ment, 130 
Champlain,    founds    Quebec,    130; 

goes  westward,  130 
Chamuscado   enters    New   Mexico, 

114 
Charles,  Fort,  151 
Chepewyan,  Fort,  founded,  147 
Cheyenne,  tribe,  where  classed,  64; 

town  of,  334 
Chichilticalli,  no 
Chihuahua,  Pike  taken  to  Salcedo's 

headquarters  there,  192 
Chittemachan,    stock,   location   of, 

Chittenden,  H.  M.,  on  Bonneville, 
270;  reference  to  his  book,  270; 
quoted,  270,  271,  277,  280;  opin- 
ion of  Bonneville,  271;  opinion 
of  the  Salt  Lake  exploring  pro- 
ject, 277;  on  Bonneville's  breach 
of  discipline,  284 

Children,  treatment  of,  by  Amer- 
inds, 85 

Chinook  jargon,  63 

Chippewa  tribe,  where  classed,  63 

Chouteau,  Auguste,  174,  194 

Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter 
Day  Saints,  304 

Cibola,  Seven  Cities  of,  no,  113 

Cibola,  cows  of,  34;  why  so  called, 
34 

Cicuye,  112 

Cimarron  River,  257 

Claims  of  the  various  Powers  in 
North  America,  144 

Clan,  82;  life,  82;  names,  86;  prop- 
erty, 82 

Clappine  drowned,  210 

Clark,  Chaboneau,  and  Sacajawea 
nearly  lost,  166 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  153,  157 

Clark,  William,  to  go  with  Lewis, 
157;  commissioned  lieutenant, 
158;  explores  Salmon  River,  169; 
made  agent  for  the  western 
tribes,  174;  made  general  of  mi- 


litia, 174;  ordered  to  suppress 
whiskey  still,  286 

Clarke  hangs  a  Nez  Perce,  243 

Clatsop,  Fort,  170,  196 

Clybum,  his  dash  for  life,  245 ; 
walks  to  Council  Bluffs,  245 

Coahuiltecan  stock,  location  of,  67 

Coast  range,  8 

Color  of  buffalo,  38 

Colorado,  City,  224;  first  American 
structure  in  State  of,  186; 
Plateau,   270 

Colorado  River,  canyons,  4;  can- 
yons a  barrier,  316;  canyons 
avoided,  1 7 ;  crossed  with  diffi- 
culty, 314;  Derby  explores  to 
Yuma,  315;  final  problem,  320; 
first  steamer  on,  315;  head- 
waters of,  4;  length  of,  4;  map 
showing  Marble-Grand  Canyon, 
326;  Onate  arrived  at  it,  116; 
only  one  way  to  explore  it,  314; 
point  where  Powell's  men  left 
him,  326;  Powell  desires  to  ex- 
plore it,  320;  remained  unknown 
till  Powell,  18 ;  Sumner  and  Haw- 
kins the  only  men  to  go  all 
the  way  from  Green  River  Valley 
to  tidewater,  325;  the  close 
canyons,  322;  tidal  bore,  249; 
unbroken,  250,  314;  valley,  6; 
verticality  of  walls,  324 

Colorado  River,  Little,  116 

Colorado,  steamboat,  315 

Colter,  his  race  for  life,  194; 
through  the  geyser  region  of  the 
Yellowstone,  196;  trapper,  194 

Columbia  River,  Aguilar  at  mouth 
of,  142;  bar,  142;  discovery  by 
Heceta,  142 ;  first  at  mouth  of,  4; 
first  news  of,  133;  Fishing  and 
Trading  Company,  283 ;  Great 
Britain  claims  mouth  of,  219; 
rumours  of,  138;  visited  by  a  na- 
tive of  Louisiana,  140 

Columbia,  ship,  4,  150 

Comanche,  tribe,  where  classed,  63 ; 
and  Kiowa  intimately  associated, 
64;  house,  68 

Comal  (comalli),  267 

Compagnie  d'Orient,  138 

Conception  River,  name  applied  to 
the  Mississippi,  133 

Concrete  made  with  clay  and 
gravel.  68 

Conejos,  Rio,  Pike  builds  fort  there, 
189 

Conflicting  territorial  claims,  155 


Index 


345 


Congress,  generosity  of,  303  ;  passes 
railway  bill,  328 

Constitution,  ship,  sent  to  convoy 
the  Tonquin,  199 

Continental  divide,  2 

Contractor,  chief,  of  Union  Pacific 
Railway,  330 

Cook,  Captain,  doubts  existence  of 
North-west  Passage,  148 

Cooper  goes  to  Santa  Fe  in  1822,  257 

Copper  mines  in  New  Mexico,  267 

Corazones,  Valle  de  los  (Valley  of 
the  Hearts),  107 

Coronado,  Francis  Vasquez  de,  109; 
arrived  near  Kansas  City,  126; 
expedition  projected,  108;  ex- 
pedition, 1 10 ;  finds  buffalo  robes 
at  Cibola,  34 ;  goes  east,  112;  goes 
with  Marcos  to  see  Mendoza,  109 ; 
injured,  113;  referred  to,  183  ;  re- 
turns to  Mexico,  113;  returns  to 
Tiguex,  113 

Corralling  buffalo,  46 

Cotton  cultivated,  93 

Coues,  discovers  Fowler's  journal, 
235;  suggestion  as  to  Pike's  real 
intentions,  184 

Council  Bluffs,  222;  Clyburn  walks 
there,  245 

Coureurs  de  bois,  136 

Cree  tribe,  where  classed,  63 

Creek  tribe  receive  white  refugees, 
262 

Crook,  General,  266 

Crooks,  Ramsay,  with  Wilson  Price 
Hunt,  205 

Crooks,  rejoins  Hunt,  212;  starts 
back,  210 

Crossing  of  the  Fathers  (El  Vado  de 
los  Padres),  125;  early  known 
to  Robert  Campbell,  314;  Jacob 
Hamblin  goes  that  way,  317; 
map  showing  jposition  of,  326 

Crow  chief's  opinion  of  the  whites, 
291 

Crow  method  of  truce  conference, 

293 
Crow  tribe,  where  classed,  61 
Crozat,  Antoine,  grant  to,  138 
Cruelty  of  Amerinds,  100 
Cruz,  Friar  Juan  de  la,  114 
Cruzatte  accidentally  shoots  Lewis, 

Cruzatte  s  post,  160 

Cunames,  town  found  by  Espejo  on 

the  Puerco,  114 
Currant    Creek,     Pike    camps    at 

mouth  of,  188 


Dakota,  tribe,   where  classed,   61; 

tipi,  68 
Davis  in  the  Far  North,  131 
Dawson  killed  by  a  white  bear,  235 
Day,  John,  reduced  to  a  skeleton, 

212 ;  dies,  216 
Dead  Sea  of  America,  304,  305 
Deception  Bay,   148 
Dellenbaugh,  Mount,  324 
Denver  to  Salt  Lake,  road  explored, 

315 
Derby,  Lieutenant,  explores  Colo- 
rado up  to  Yuma,  315 
Deseret,  State  of,  305,  308 
De  Smet,  Father,  308 
Desolation,  Canyon  of,  322 
De  Soto.     See  Soto. 
Diamond  Creek,  317 
Diaz,  Melchior,  sent  to  reconnoitre, 

109  ;    explores    from    Corazones 

to  the  Colorado  River,  1 1 1 ;  finds, 

letters  from  Alarfon,    1 1 1 ;    goes 

back    with    Marcos,    iii  ;    dies, 

III ; 
Dickson  met  by  Lewis  and  Clark, 

174 
Dillon,  Sidney,  T)?)?) 
Disappointment,  Cape,  148 
Diseases,  ravages  of,  97 
Disorder  at  railway  terminals,  336 
Dixon,  148 

Dixon  and  Hancock,  194 
Dodge,  General,  336;  chief  engineer 

Union  Pacific  Railway,  330 
Dog,  the  only  domestic  animal  of 

the  Amerind  of  North  America, 

56;  used  as  food,  77 
Dolores    Mission,    Sonora,    Mexico, 

120 
Domesticating  buffalo,  51 
Dorantes,  Andreas,  106 
Dorion,    161;  lived  early  with  the 

Sioux,    151;    Pierre,   with    Hunt, 

206 ;  his  squaw  and  children,  210; 

squaw  has  a  child  on  the  road, 

213 
Dougherty,    one    of    Pike's    men, 

freezes  his  feet,  190 
Drake  on  California  coast,  119 
Drake's  Bay,  119 
Drewyer,  interpreter  for  Lewis  and 

Clark,  163 
Drouillard,    interpreter   for    Lewis 

and  Clark,  163 
Drunkenness  at  railway  terminals, 

332 


346 


Index 


Duff,  John,  333 

Dugout  house,  332 

Dunbar,  181 

Dupratz,    story    of    great    western 

nver  heard  by  him,  140 
Durant,  Doctor,  336 
Dutch  at  New  York,  132 


Echo  Park,  294 

El  Real  de  Dolores,  gold  mine  in 
New  Mexico,  267 

El  Vado  de  los  Padres  (the  Crossing 
of  the  Fathers),  125 

Engineer  Cantonment,  222 

Entrails  of  animals  eaten  raw,  79 

Escalante,  buffalo  seen  by  him  on 
White  River  near  Green  River, 
36;  names  Arroyo  del  Cibolo,  36; 
journey  of,  124;  abandons  at- 
tempt to  rea,ch  San  Gabriel,  125  ; 
crosses  the  Colorado,  125;  route, 
1 68 ;  mentioned,  317 

Escalona,  Luis  de,  remains  in  New 
Mexico,  113 

Eskimauan  stock,  66 

Esmeralda,  steamboat,  goes  up  the 
Colorado,  317 

Espejo,  Antonio  de,  goes  to  New 
Mexico,  114;  direction  of  his 
route  from  Tiguex,  114;  goes  to 
Zuni,  116;  to  San  Francisco 
Mountains,  116;  route,  116;  sees 
buffalo  on  the  Rio  Pecos,  116 

Espiritu  Santo,  Rio  de,  104 

Estevan,  companion  of  Cabeza  de 
Vaca,  106;  guides  Friar  Marcos, 
108 ;  killed,  108 ;  Diaz  meets  some 
of  the  natives  who  were  with 
Estevan  when  he  went  to  Cibola, 
no 

Evangeline,  Longfellow's  poem, 
cited,  130 

Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  157, 

Expedition  of  Villazur  toward  the 

Missouri  in  1720,  117 
Exploration    of    the    Colorado    by 

Ives,  317 
Explorations     of    the     Californian 

coast,  119 
Explorer,    The,    Ives's    steamboat, 

317;  picture  of,  316 


Falls  of  the  Missouri,  166 


Faith  Promoting  Series,  Books  of 
the  Mormon  Church,  313 

Farnham  cited,  295 

Father  de  Smet,  308 

Ferrelo  explores  coast  of  Oregon, 
.119    ^ 

Fidler,  Peter,  1 60 ;  goes  south-west 
from  Saskatchewan  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  151 

Fields,  Reuben,  with  Lewis  and 
Clark,  kills  a  Blackfoot,  172 

First,  highway  to  the  Wilderness, 
130;  European  settlement  in  the 
United  States,  130;  traverse  of 
the  continent  north  of  Mexico, 
148 ;  American  to  go  to  California 
overland,  250;  American  to  see 
the  Grand  Canyon,  250 

Fitzpatrick,  with  Ashley,  234; 
guides  Parker,  287 

Flaming  Gorge,  238;  first  of  the 
canyons  below  Green  River  Val- 
ley, on  Green  River,  234 

Florida,  127;  conquest  of,  103; 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  220 

Floyd,  Sergeant,  death  of,  162 

Fontaine  qui  Bouille,  Boiling  Spring 
Creek,  186;  Long  camps  on  it, 
224;  Fremont's  name  for  it,  224 

Fontenelle  guides  Parker,  287 

Forsythe,  Thomas,  opinion  of 
methods  of  treating  natives, 
269 ;  tells  of  abuse  of  natives,  269 

Fort,  Chepewyan.  147;  Charles, 
151;  Mandan,  162;  Clatsop,  170; 
Smith,  Long  arrives  there,  227; 
Nonsense,  272  ;  Walla  Walla,  281 ; 
Hall,  283;  Vancouver,  283;  Te- 
cumseh,  285;  Union,  whiskey  still 
at,  286;  Davy  Crockett,  Meek  at, 
294;  Yuma,  position  of,  315 

Fort  Yuma,  Derby  explores  river 
to,  325  ;  Sumner  and  Hawkins  go 
there,  325 

Forty-ninth  parallel  boundary,  219 

Forty-second  parallel  boundary, 
220 

Fossil  remains  of  buffalo,  38 

Fowler,  Jacob,  builds  first  house  by 
an  American  at  Pueblo,  235; 
goes  to  Santa  Fe,  235  ;  journal  of, 
235;  his  description  of  Dawson's 
condition  after  the  bear  fight,  237 

Fowler  and  Glenn,  go  to  Taos,  235  ; 
meet  McKnight,  Chambers,  and 
Baird,  who  were  imprisoned  in 
Mexico,  257 

Foy  killed  by  Blackfeet,  274 


Index 


347 


Fraeb  hunts  through  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  280 

France  loses  footing  on  the  con- 
tinent, 141 

Franciscan  Order  supersedes  the 
Jesuit  in  CaHfomia,  122 

Francis  La  Flesche,  quoted,  89 

Franklin,  Missouri,  starting-point 
of  Santa  Fe  Trail,  257 

Fraser's  fort,  197,  198 

Fraser  River,  148 

Fremont,  John  C,  225,  271,  298, 
303.  304,  308 

French,  advance  by  the  St.  Law- 
rence route,  129;  settlement  on 
the  St.  John's  River,  130;  on  the 
Saskatchewan,  134;  first  to  Hud- 
son Bay,  136;  supremacy,  138 

Frontenac,  132 

Fuca,  Juan  de,  119;  Strait  of,  sup- 
posed to  go  through  to  Atlantic, 
142 

Fulton,  222 

Fur  business  still  great,  304 

Fur  companies,  battles  of,  240 

Furs  confiscated,  253 

Fur  trade,  145  ;  rivalry,  286 


Gadsden  purchase,  315 

Gallatin,   Albert,   his  classification 

of   Amerinds    by   language,    60; 

cited,  284 
Gallatin  River,  168 
Garces,     at     the     Colorado,     124; 

reaches    Bac,    124;   journeys   of, 

124;  Sitgreaves   follows  trail  of, 

316 
Gate  of  Lodore,  294 
General  Jesup,  steamboat,  315 
George,  Point,  200 
Geronimo,  266 

Gila,  trapping  on  the,  248,  255,  269 
Glen,  Robert,  226 
Glenn  and  Fowler,  go  to  Taos,  235  ; 

their  party  fight  a  white  bear, 

235;  meet  Mc Knight,  Chambers, 

and  Baird,  257 
Glenn,    Hugh,   to   Santa   Fe,    235; 

builds   first   American   house   at 

Pueblo,  first  in  Colorado,  235 
Golden  Gate,  119 
Gold,  mines  in  New  Mexico,   267; 

found  at  San  Fernando  Mission, 

California,  308;  at  Sutter's  Mill, 

308 
Goodman  leaves  the  Powell  party, 

322 


Government,  aid  to  science,  303; 
sanctions  Mormonism,  308;  aid 
to  railways,  328 ;  to  Union  Pacific 
Railway,  329 

Governor  and  Company  of  Adven- 
turers of  England  Trading  into 
Hudson's  Bay,  or  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  136 

Grafton,  Mormons  settle  there,  313 

Graham,  Lieutenant,  takes  Long's 
steamer  down,  222 

Grande  Ronde,  the  valley  of, 
Bonneville  arrives  there,  281 

Grand  Fork  of  the  Arkansas,  185 

Grand  Island,  town  of,  334 

Grand  Pawnee  war  party,  185 

Grand  Peak,  the,  of  Pike,  or  Pike's 
Peak,  186 

Grand  River,  Powell  arrives  at  its 
mouth,  322 

Grand  Wash,  Hamblin  crosses 
Colorado  there,  317;  Powell  ar- 
rives there,  324 

Grave  of  Soto,  127 

Gray  Canyon,  322 

Gray,  Captain  Robert,  4;  discoverer 
of  the  Columbia,  142;  exchanges 
ships  with  Kendrick,  150;  enters 
mouth  of  the  Columbia,  150 

Great  Basin,  location  of,  6;  south- 
ern rim  of.  6 

Great  Britain  acquires  Canada, 
141 

Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  agree  temporarily  as  to 
North-west  Territory,  219 

Great  Salt  Lake,  304 

Great  Slave  Lake  discovered  by 
Heame,  147 

Greeley,  Lewis,  accompanies  Ham- 
blin to  Moki  Towns,  318 

Greenhow,  Robert,  cited,  119 

Green  River,  4,  208;  named  after 
trapper,  234;  descended  by  Ash- 
ley, 238;  first  use  of  name,  249; 
Kit  Carson  becomes  familiar 
with,  255;  Meek  goes  down,  295; 
map,  295 ;  Bridger's  attempt  to 
explore,  314 

Green  River  Station,  Wyoming, 
320;  adobe  ruins  of,  332,  334; 
terminal,  334 

Green  River  Valley,  208,  234,  256 

Green,  trapper  with  Ashle)^,  234 

Gregg,  asserts  buffalo  herd  is  easily 
turned,  45 ;  book  on  Santa  Fe 
Trail,  257;  crosses  to  Santa  Fe, 
258 


348 


Index 


Grinnell,  Henry,  rescues  Oatman 
girl,  310 

Gulf  of  California  receives  Colorado 
River,  4 

Gun,  Amerind  acquisition  of,  a 
boon,  72 

Guns  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  flint- 
locks, 164 

Gunnison  Valley,  322 

Gypsiferous  clay,  68 


H 


Halberd,  Spanish,  found  on  Reid's 
farm,  126 

Hall,  303 

Hamblin,  Jacob,  313,  324;journeys 
of,  317;  explores  a  road  by  the 
Ute  Ford  to  the  Moki  Towns,  317; 
goes  to  Moki  Towns  via  Grand 
Wash,  317  ;  circumtours  the 
Grand  Canyon,  318;  first  to 
cross  Colorado  by  Lee  Ferry 
route,  318;  Grand  Wash  to  Call- 
ville  by  boat,  324 

Hammer  of  silver  for  driving  last 
spike  of  Union  Pacific,  336 

Ham's  Fork,  Green  River  Valley, 

309 
Hancock  meets  Lewis  and  Clark, 

Haney,  British  trapper,  163;  visits 
Lewis  and  Clark,  180 

Harmon,  Daniel,  158;  his  descrip- 
tion of    the  Canadan  voyageur, 

147. 

Hawkins,  of  Powell's  party,  325 

Heceta,  Inlet  of,  142 

Heceta,  Bruno,  at  mouth  of  the 
Columbia,  142 

Helay  River.     See  Gila. 

Hennepin,  133 

Henry,  Andrew,  196,  208;  discov- 
erer of  South  Pass,  234;  crosses 
Continental  Divide  in  1809,  234; 
with  Ashley,  234 

Henry's  Fork,  238 

Hernando  de  Soto,  expedition  of, 
126 

Hidatsa  tribe,  where  classed,  61 

Hind,  description  of  a  buffalo 
pound, 46 

Hoback,  trapper,  206;  on  head- 
waters of  the  Snake,  208 

Hochelaga,  original  name  for  site 
of  Montreal,  130 

Holy  Cross,  Mountain  of  the,  8 

Horse,  coming  of  the,  to  America,  7  2 


Horse  Prairie  Creek,  168 

Horses  and  cattle  numerous  early 
in  New  Mexico,  267 

Hospitality,  82 

Hostile  Ground,  100,  185 

House  building,  nature  of,  due  to 
surroundings.  70 

House-building  tribes,  66 

House,  of  the  Shoshones,  68;  of  the 
Dakotas,  68;  of  tribes  of  New 
Mexico,  68;  of  California,  68 

Houses  of  the  Amerinds,  68 

Houston  wins  battle  of  San  Jacinto, 
298 

Hubates,  116 

Huddart,  William,  goes  from  Taos 
to  Green  River,  249 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  or  Govern- 
or and  Company  of  Adventurers 
of  England  Trading  into  Hud- 
son's Bay,  treats  Amerinds  well, 
82:  formed,  136;  battles  with 
North-west  Company,  240; 
merged  wth  North-west  Com- 
pany, 240;  controls  Columbia 
River,  281 ;  in  control  of  Oregon, 
281,  283,  289;  buys  Wyeth  out, 
283;  opposition  to,  290;  taxes 
McLoughlin,  290;  its  governor  of 
Oregon  affairs  in  1847,  290 

Hudson  Bay  discovered,  132 

Hudson  River,  132 

Human  flesh  eaten  by  Amerinds,  79 

Humboldt  River,  277;  course  of,  6; 
rise  of,  6 

Hunchback  cows  of  Alvar  Nunez 
Cabeza  de  Vaca,  2,  32,  106 

Hunt,  Wilson  Price,  198;  to  go 
overland,  198;  organises  expedi- 
tion, 203;  leaves  St.  Louis  for 
Astoria,  204;  outfit,  204;  leaves 
the  Missouri,  206;  route  from  the 
Missouri,  207;  builds  boats,  210; 
has  a  canoe  wrecked,  210;  party 
splits  up,  210;  caches  goods  at 
Caldron  Linn,  211;  starving,  212; 
loses  a  voyageur,  212;  crosses 
Blue  Mountains,  213;  arrives  at 
the  Columbia,  214;  arrives  at 
Astoria,  214;  goes  to  Russian 
America,  215 

Hunting  buffalo,  methods  of ,  45 


I 


Iberville  starts  French  settlement 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi, 
134 


Index 


349 


Independence,  eastern  end  of  Santa 
Fe  Trail,  257 

Indian.     See  Amerind. 

Inlet  of  Heceta,  142 

Iowa  tribe,  where  classed,  61 

Iron  Trail,  the,  best  route  for,  327 

Irrigation,  by  Amerinds,  70;  Rio 
Grande  Valley,  175;  Mexican, 
267;  at  Salt  Lake,  306 

Irving,  Washington,  a  buffalo  hunt- 
er, 48;  kills  a  buffalo,  49;  on 
Bonneville,  271 ;  travels  over  the 
plains,  287 

Island  Park,  294 

Iturbide,  257;  proclaims  Mexican 
independence,  228 

Ives,  Lieutenant,  .317 

J 

Jackson,  President,  reinstates  Bon- 
neville, 262,  284 

Jackson's  Hole,  Wyeth's  men  killed 
there,  274 

James,  Dr.  Edwin,  with  Long,  223; 
climbs  Pike's  Peak,  224;  Peak, 
first  name  of  Pike's  Peak,  225 

Jamestown,  132 

Jefferson  River,  168 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  plans  an  expe- 
dition, 155;  proposes  sending 
party  to  the  Pacific  overland, 
156;  instructions  to  Lewis  and 
Clark,  161 

Jesuit  Order  superseded  in  Cali- 
fornia, 122 

Johnson,  George  A.,  contracts  for 
transporting  supplies  on  Colo- 
rado River  from  the  Gulf  to 
Yuma,  315;  takes  steamer^  to 
head  of  navigation  before  Lieu- 
tenant Ives,  317 

Johnston,  Colonel  Albert  Sydney, 
moves    army   against   the    Mor- 
mons, 310 
Toliet,  132 
[ones,  Ben,  216 

[onquire  plans  expedition,  140 
[os^,  Juan,  the  Apache  chief,  265 
[ulesburg,  334 

ulien,  1836,  name  cut  on  the  wall 
of  Labyrinth  Canyon  and  the 
wall  of  Cataract  Canyon,  Colo- 
rado River,  296 

Juniper  tree,  10 


Kanab,  318 


Kansas  City,  309 

Karankawan  stock,  location  of,  67 

Karoskiou  River,  139 

Kaskaias  tribe  met  by  Long,  226 

Kearney,  General,  300 

Kendrick,  Captain,  goes  into  Strait 
of  Fuca,  150 

Keresan  stock,  location  of,  67 

Kichai  tribe,  where  classed,  64 

Killbuck  with  La  Bonte,  296 

Kino,  Friar,  120;  first  to  see  Casa 
Grande  ruins,  120;  map  of  head 
of  Gulf  of  California,  made  by, 
120;  astronomer  of  Ingolstadt, 
124 

Kiowa  tribe,  64 

Kiowan  stock,  range  of,  64 

Kiva,  93 

Knisteneau  tribe,  63 

Kooskooskie  River  of  Lewis  and 
Clark,  170 


La  Bont^,  213;  battle  with  Ara- 
pahos,  296;  remains  at  a  Ute 
camp  to  recuperate,  298 

Labyrinth  Canyon,  name  carved 
there,  296;  Green  River,  322 

La  Charette,  Lewis  and  Clark  plan 
to  winter  there,  160,  161 

Laclede  founds  St.  Louis,  141 

Lake  Bonneville,  situation  and 
character  of,  6,  284 

Lake  Timpanogos,  or  Utah  Lake, 
124 

La  Lande,  goes  to  Santa  Fe,  1804, 
176;  Morrison's  claim  against 
him,  190;  Pike  meets  him  on  the 
way  to  Santa  Fe,  191 

Lamanite,  the  Mormon  name  for 
the  Amerind,  317 

Land  grant,  specified,  329;  aggre- 
gate to  Pacific  railways,  330 

Languages,  Amerind,  number  of,  in 
North  America,  61 

Lapage,  164 

La  Paz,  missionaries  go  from  there 
to  San  Diego,  122 

La  Perouse,  explorer,  148 

La  Purisima  Concepcion,  Mission 
of,  when  founded,  122 

L'Archeveque,  the  decoy  in  the 
assassination  of  La  Salle,  134 

La  Reine,  Fort  de,  of  Verendrye, 

Lark,  the  Astoria  supply -ship, 
wrecked,  218 


350 


Index 


Laroche,  British  trader,  162;  same 
as  La  Roque,  162;  planned  ex- 
pedition to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, 163  f 

La  Salle,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, 133  ;  his  dream  of  coloni- 
sation, 134;  murdered,  134;  ex- 
pedition, remnant  of,  found  by 
Leon, 134 

Lasso,  throwing  the,  in  New  Mex- 
ico, 267 

Last  spike  on  the  trans-continental 
railway,  driving  the,  2>ZZ\  last  tie, 
336 

Latrobe,  Charles,  companion  of 
Washington  Irving,  287 

Laut,  Miss  A.  C,  Preface,  vii 

Lawlessness  at  the  terminals  of  the 
trans-continental  railway,  332 

Law's  Mississippi  Company,  138 

Le  Clerc,  Francis,  216 

Ledyard,  John,  suggests  trans-con- 
tinental exploration,  153 

Lee  Ferry,  first  crossing  there  by 
white  men,  318;  map  showing 
location  of,  326 

Lee,  Jason  and  Daniel,  283,  308 

Lee,  John  D.,  leader  of  the  Moun- 
tain Meadows  Massacre,  312; 
hides  at  the  mouth  of  the  Paria, 
318;  begins  Lee 's  Ferry,  318 

Leithead,  Mormon  bishop,  brings 
supplies  for  Powell,  325 

Lemhi  Pass,  168 

Leon,  Alonzo  de,  finds  remnant  of 
La  Salle  party,  134 

Leon,  Ponce  de,  103 

Lewis  and  Clark,  antedated  on  the 
Missouri,  139;  Dorion  with,  151; 
their  expedition,  158;  ready  to 
start,  160;  start  for  winter  quar- 
ters, 161;  men  and  boats,  161, 
162,  163;  first  sight  of  Rocky 
Mountains,  1 64 ;  in  the  untrodden 
Wilderness,  166;  pass  over  the 
Great  Divide,  168;  down  Snake 
River  and  the  Columbia,  170;  at 
Fort  Clatsop,  171;  leave  Fort 
Clatsop,  172;  reach  St.  Louis, 
174 

Lewis,  clerk  of  the  Tonquin,  blows 
up  the  ship,  202 

Lewis,  Meriwether,  desires  to  ex- 
plore to  the  Pacific  with  Michaux, 
156;  secretary  to  Jefferson,  156; 
character  and  age  of,  157  ;  leaves 
for  La  Charette,  161;  writes  to 
Chaboillez,  162;  accidentally  shot, 


163;   on  the  Divide,  168;  shoots 
a  Blackfoot,  172 
Linguistic  map  of  the  Amerinds,  62 
Linn,  Story  of  the  Mormons,  306 
Lisa,  Fort,  222 

Lisa,   Manuel,    151;  character  and 
age  of,   194;  opposes  Hunt,  203; 
goes  up  the  Missouri,  203 ;  quar- 
rels with  Hunt,  206;  activity  of, 
221;     made    sub-agent    for    the 
tribes  of  the  Missouri,  221;  last 
voyage  and  death  of,  221 ;  closes 
an  epoch,  232 
Little  Colorado  River,  116 
Little  Gun,  Crow  chief,  293 
Locations  of  early  Pueblo  villages, 

Lodges,  construction  of  beaver,  21 

Lodore,  canyon  of  Green  River, 
240;  described,  294;  descent  of 
river  in,  295;  trappers  wrecked 
in,  295  ;  Powell  wrecked  in,  322 

Lolo  Creek,  169;  Pass,  169 

Lonely  Dell,  318 

Long,  expedition  of,  221;  outfit, 
222;  steamboat  of,  222;  takes  to 
horses,  222;  route,  223;  reaches 
the  Arkansas,  226;  party  divides, 
226;  searches  for  Red  River,  226; 
pessimistic  on  the  value  of  the . 
Wilderness,  304 

Longfellow's  Evangeline,  130 

Long's  Peak,  Pattie  goes  there, 
249 

Lopez  enters  New  Mexico,  114 

Loreto,  Mission  of,  120 

Los  Angeles,  Spanish  trail  to,  270 

Louisiana,  219;  La  Salle's  claim  to, 
133  ;  becomes  a  French  province, 
138;  ceded  by  France  to  Spain, 
141;  undefined  area  of,  145; 
transferred  by  Spain  to  France, 
152;  bought  by  the  United  States, 
152;  transferred  to  the  United 
States,  1 5  2  ;  undefined,  153;  map 
of,  154;  western  limit  claimed  by 
the  United  States,  155;  defined 
by  Spain,  161;  purchase  ratified 
by  Congress,  161;  cession  con- 
summated to  United  States,  161 ; 
bounds  of,  181;  claims  as  to 
boundaries,  181;  boundary  be- 
tween it  and  British  territory, 
219;  bearing  of  Pacific  Fur  Com- 
pany on  boundary  of,  ^  219; 
boundary,  220;  Purchase  limits, 
220 

Lussat,  152 


Index 


351 


M 


McClellan,  174,  205,  216 

McCracken,  162 

McDougall,  next  in  command  to 
Hunt,  199;  in  charge  of  Fort 
George,  Astoria,  218;  denounced, 
219 

McKay  goes  on  the  Tonquin,  200 

Mackenzie,  Alexander,  146,  163; 
to  the  Arctic,  147;  Mackenzie 
River,  147;  to  the  Pacific,  148; 
reaches  tidewater  at  King  Island, 
160 

McKenzie,  Donald,  202;  Kenneth, 
284 

McKnight,  Chambers,  and  Baird 
imprisoned,  257  ;  meet  Glenn  and 
Fowler,  257 

McLoughlin,  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany governor,  290 

McTavish  reaches  Astoria,  218 

Mad  River,  208 

Madison  River,  168 

Maize,  a  staple  before  the  whites 
arrived,  76,  77 

Maldonado,  Alonso  del  Castillo, 
companion  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  106 

Malgares,  character  of,  182;  expe- 
dition of,  182;  Robinson's  opin- 
ion of,  192';  escorts  Pike  and 
Robinson  to  Chihuahua,  192 

Malhado  Island,  104 

Mallet  brothers,  176 

Mandan,  tribe,  where  classed,  61; 
house,  68 ;  country,  158  ;  go  every 
spring  to  Rocky  Mountains,  158; 
Lewis  and  Clark  leave  Fort,  and 
start  west,  163;  burned,  174 

Map  of  Louisiana  and  of  the  Wil- 
derness, 154 

Maple  sugar,  72 

Marble  Canyon,  324 

Marble-Grand  Canyon ,  length  of ,  324 

Marcos  of  Niza,  Friar,  108 ;  sees  the 
Seven  Cities,  109 ;  sent  back,  1 10 ; 
repeats  his  story,  no 

Maria's  River,  166 

Marquette,  132;  down  the  Missis- 
sippi, 133 

Mary's  River,  277 

Massacre,  of  Villazur's  party,  119; 
of  the  Whitman  family,  290;  at 
Mountain  Meadows,  by  Mor- 
mons, 310;  at  Plum  Creek,  Union 
Pacific  Railway,  330 

Mastodon  bones  beneath  those  of 
buffalo,  35 


Maxent  (or  Maxan),  Laclede  and 
Company,  194 

Maximilian,  Prince  of  Wied,  goes 
up  the  Missouri,  284 

Mayflower,  tfte,  132 

Meadows,  beaver,  24 

Meares  fails  to  find  the  Rio  de  San 
Roque,  148 

Meek,  Joe,  appears  in  the  Wilder- 
ness, 278;  snoots  a  Digger,  278; 
in  Oregon,  290;  quoted,  292;  at 
Fort  Davy  Crockett,  294;  goes 
through  the  canyon  of  Lodore  on 
the  ice,  294 

Mendoza,  Viceroy  of  Mexico,  sends 
Marcos  of  Niza  to  the  north 
country,  108;  sends  Coronado  to 
search  for  the  Seven  Cities,  no; 
his  attitude  toward  Coronado  on 
the  latter's  return,  113 

Mesquite  tree,  10 

Metate,  267 

Methodist  missionaries  into  the 
Wilderness,  308 

Mexican,  natives  with  Coronado 
remain  behind,  113;  found  at 
Zuni,  116;  mountains  seen  by 
Pike,  185;  independence,  228; 
permission  for  trapping,  253; 
Gregg's  opinion  of  people  and 
government,  264,  268;  not  re- 
spected by  trappers,  264;  amuse- 
ments, 265  ;  trade  with  Apaches, 
265;  agriculture,  etc.,  267;  irri- 
gation, 267;  tariff  on  American 
goods,  268;  belief  that  the  Neu- 
ces  bounded  Texas,  298;  com- 
panions of  Walker  lasso  Amer- 
inds, 280;  war  with  the  United 
States,  300;  cession  of  1848,  300 

Michaux,  Andre,  156 

Middle  Park,  Denver,  to  Salt  Lake, 
road  through,  315 

Minitarees,  country  of,  166 

Mission  of  San  Fernando,  discovery 
of  gold  there,  308 

Missionaries,  at  San  Francisco  Bay, 
122;  from  La  Paz  to  San  Diego, 
122;  go  to  Oregon,  287;  looked 
upon  with  suspicion  by  natives, 
290;  Protestant,  hold  themselves 
above  the  trappers,  290;  Catho- 
lic, try  to  descend  Colorado,  295 

Missions,  in  New  Mexico,  117;  in 
Lower  California,  120;  arrange- 
ment of,  122;  list  of  California 
missions  and  dates  of  founding, 


352 


Index 


Mississippi,  Radisson's  discovery, 
Preface,  vii. ;  Soto's  crossing,  127  ; 
upper,  discovered,  132 

Missouri,  River,  main  highway  to 
the  Wilderness,  4;  Todd  goes  up 
it,  151;  Falls  of,  166;  Fur  Com- 
pany founded,  197 

Mohaves  buy  Oatman  girls,  309 

Moki,  tribe,  where  classed,  63 ;  vil- 
lages, 67;  corn  planting,  70; 
Towns,  Hamblin  goes  there,  317  ; 
Ives  goes  there,  317 

Montagne  a  la  Basse,  British  trad- 
ing post,  158,  163 

Monterey  Bay,  missionaries  fail  to 
reach  it,  122 

Monterey,  Walker  passes  the  winter 
there,  280 

Montreal,  former  native  name  for 
its  site,  130 

Monts,  Sieur  de,  founds  Port  Royal, 
130 

Monument     built     by    Verendrye, 

139 

More,  one  of  Wyeth's  men,  killed  in 
Jackson's  Hole,  274 

Mormon,  Book  of,  304 

Mormons,  The  Story  of  the,  Linn 
cited,  306 

Mormons,  304;  origin  of,  304;  oppo- 
sition to,  304;  books  of  the,  305; 
migrations,  305 ;  arrive  at  Salt 
Lake,  305;  privations  of,  306; 
order,  307;  claim  to  be  invin- 
cible, 310;  condemn  the  Mount- 
ain Meadows  Massacre,  312; 
settle  on  the  Santa  Clara,  313; 
desirous  of  opening  road  across 
the  Colorado  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Lamanites,  317 

Morrison's  claim  against  La  Lande, 
190 

Mosca  Pass,  Pike  goes  through  it, 
189 

Moscoso  de  Alvarado,  127 

Mother  of  Floods,  the,  181 

Mountain  Meadows,  trail  through, 
270,  309;  Massacre,  310 

Mountain,  Wilderness,  character  of, 
6;  of  the  Holy  Cross,  8 

Mount  Dellenbaugh,  Powell's  three 
men  killed  near  it,  324 

Mules,  ears  cut  off  to  obtain  blood 
for  drinking,  257;  ori  the  Santa 
Fe  Trail,  258;  detect  approach  of 
natives,  260 

Mush,  79 

Muskbogs,  27 


N 


Nachitoches,  182 

Napoleon  plans  for  Louisiana,  152; 

sells  it,  152 
Narrow  Canyon,  324 
Narvaez,  Panfilo  de,  2,  103,  104 
Natchezan  stock,  location  of,  67 
National  Yellowstone  Park,  8 
Nauvoo,  Illinois,  Mormon  town  of, 

305 
Navajo,  tribe,  where  classed,  61,  66; 

Puebloan     mixture     with,      66; 

house,  93 
Navigation   on   Colorado,  Johnson 

first  to  reach  head  of,  317 
Nephi,  Mormon 'town,  309 
Nevada,  first  trapper  to  traverse, 

269 
New  Archangel,  or  Sitka,  215 
New  Jerusalem  of  the  Mormons,  305 
New  Mexico,  trapping  in,  253  ;  gold 

mines    of,     267;    ceded    to    the 

United  States,  300 
New  Orleans,  a  port  of  deposit  for 

the  United  States,  152;  privilege 

revoked  by  Spain,  152 
Nez  Perces,  one  hung  by  Clark,  243 ; 

friendly  to  Bonneville,  274 
Nidiver,  shoots  two  natives  on  sus- 
picion, 278 
Night  attacks  seldom  made,  72 
Nixon,  O.  W.,  his  book  cited,  289 
Niza.     See  Marcos  of  Niza. 
Nonsense,  Fort,  272 
North    America    divided    between 

three  Powers,  141 
Northern  Mystery,  104,  108 
North  Platte,  Browne  killed  near, 

North-west  Company,  formed,  146; 
acquires  Astoria,  218;  active, 
221;  fights  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany, 240;  merged  into  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  240 

North-west  Passage  disproved,  147 

Nova  Scotia,  Acadia,  130 

Nueces  River,  considered  by  Mex- 
ico the  boundary  of  Texas,  298; 
General  Taylor  ordered  to  occupy 
territory  west  of,  300 

Nuttall,  Thomas,  204,  206;  leaves 
Hunt  party,  207 ;  with  Wyeth,  283 


O 


Oatman,   massacre,    309;   girl   res- 
cued by  Henry  Grinnell,  310 


Index 


353 


Ogden,  Peter  Skeen,  meets  Ashley, 
240 

Ogden,  River,  227 

Oldest  town  in  the  United  States, 
116 

Old  Jacob,  313 

Old  Spanish  Trail,  route  of,  270,  309 

Onate,  Juan  de,  reaches  New  Mex- 
ico, 116;  crosses  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  via  Zuhi,  116;  first  set- 
tlement, 116;  goes  eastward  on 
the  Plains,  117;  goes  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Colorado,  117 

Ontario,'  United  States  ship  of  war, 
at  Astoria,  219 

Ordway  brings  down  boats,  172 

Oregon,  region,  8;  first  mention  of 
river,  140;  river,  151;  agreement 
between  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  as  to  temporary  joint 
occupation  of,  219;  left  free  to 
British  and  Americans  for  ten 
years,  219;  rights  of  Spain  in, 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  220; 
United  States  claims  to,  221; 
agreement  renewed  for  a  second 
term  of  ten  years,  253  ;  Saviour  of, 
289;  not  free  to  Americans,  289; 
boundary  settled,   290 

Oregon  Trail,  beginnings  of,  214, 
281  ;  becomes  popular,  283  ; 
Parker  and  Whitman  travel  it, 
287;  start  at  Westport,  309 

Orleans,  Fort,  established,  138 

Ortiz,  Juan,  interpreter  to  Soto,  127 

Overland  stage  company,  road 
from  Salt  Lake  to  Denver  ex- 
plored for,  315 

Oviedo,  Lope  de,  106 

Oxen  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  258 


Pacific,  Fur  Company,  organised, 
198;  voyageurs,  for  198;  ended, 
218;  bearing  on  boundary  ques- 
tions, 219;  railways,  right  of  way, 
328;  land  grant  to,  329;  cash 
bonus  to,  329;  aggregate  land 
grant  to,  330;  miles  built  per 
day,  330;  supply  train  wrecked, 
by  Amerinds,  331 ;  railway  com- 
pleted, 336 

Padilla,  Friar  Juan  de,  113 

Pai  Utes  begin  to  cultivate  maize, 
76 

Palmyra,  New  York,  Mormonism 
originates  near,  304 


Pambrune,  Hudson  Bay  Company 
agent,  refuses  to  sell  food  to 
Bonneville,  281  '^  ^f 

Paria  River,  314;  Hamblii^crosses 
Colorado  at  mouth  of,  318;  John 
D.  Lee  settles  at  mouth  of,  318 

Parker,  Samuel,  missionary  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  goes  to 
Oregon,  287;  his  opinion  of  the 
trappers,  288;  description  of  a 
trapper  duel,  288 

Parkman,  Francis,  description  of 
Beckwourth,  238;  goes  to  the 
Wilderness,  287 

Parks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  6; 
location  of,  6 ;  names  of,  6 ;  San 
Luis,  235 

Pathfinder,  the,  298,  303 

Pattie,  James  O.,  encounter  with  a 
buffalo  calf,  52;  explores  the 
valley  of  the  Colorado,  248; 
crosses  the  Continental  DiviSe* 
249;  book  by,  249;  returns  east, 
249 

Pattie,  Sylvestre,   246-248 

Pawnee  house,  r5i 

Pawnee  tribe,  where  classed,  64 

Peace  River,  148 

Pearl  of  Great  Price,  Mormon  book, 

305 

Pecos  River,  natives  hunted  buffalo 
there  in  1540,  34;  Espejo  follows 
it  down  on  his  exit  from  New 
Mexico,  116 

Pemmican,  how  made,  40;  accu- 
mulated, 80 

Penn,  William,  132 

Piccolo,  Friar,  120 

Pierre,  town  of,  how  named,  285 

Pierre's  Hole,  Smith  meets  Sub- 
lette's party  there,  252;  battle 
of,  273 

Pike,  Zebulon  Montgomery,  178; 
his  Mississippi  expedition,  178, 
179;  returns  to  St.  Louis  from 
the  north,  180;  goes  west,  180; 
escorts  natives  to  their  home, 
181 ;  watched  by  Spaniards,  181 ; 
comes  to  trail  left  by  Malgares, 
183;  and  the  Pawnee  war  party, 
185;  sees  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
185;  lack  of  foresight,  186; 
reaches  foot  of  Rocky  Mount- 
ains, 186;  his  Grand  Peak,  186; 
sufferings  of  his  men,  186;  his 
wanderings,  188;  builds  fort  on 
Rio  Conejos,  189 ;  trapped  by  the 
Spaniards,    190;  discovers  he  is 


354 


Index 


Pike — Continued 

not  on  Red  River,  190;  meets  La 
Lande,  191;  before  Governor 
Allencaster,  191;  treatment  at 
Santa  Fe,  192;  meets  Pursley 
(Purcell),  192;  taken  to  General 
Salcedo,  192;  sent  back  to  the 
United  States,  192;  his  opinion 
of  the  Plains  region,  221;  pes- 
simistic on  the  value  of  the  Wil- 
derness, 304 

Pike's  Peak,  Long  sees  it,  224; 
James  first  man  to  climb  to  its 
summit,  225 

Pilot  Knobs,  name  Hunt  gave  the 
Three  Tetons,  208 

Pima  ruins  called  Casa  Grande,  120 

Piman  stock,  range  of,  66 

Pineda,  discovers  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi,  104 

Pinon  tree,  and  nut,  10 

Pitahaya,  10 

Plains,  extent  of,  5;  character  of, 
5 ;  rivers  of,  6 

Platte  River,  6 

Plum  Creek  massacre,  330 

Plymouth  Rock,  132 

Poala,  one  of  the  Tiguex  villages, 
114 

Point  George,  200 

Polk,  on  Rio  Grande  boundary,  300 

Ponce  de  Leon,  103 

Pone,  combread,  79 

Population,  99;  estimate  of  Amer- 
indian, 95 

Porcupine  Bear's  protest  against 
whiskey,  94 

Portneuf  River,  281 ;  Wyeth  builds 
his  Fort  Hall  there,  283 

Potts,  trapper,  194 

Powell,  John  Wesley,  Major,  the 
only  explorer  who  went  where 
modem  Amerinds  did  not  go,  90 ; 
conceives  the  idea  of  exploring 
the  canyons  of  the  Colorado,  320 ; 
expedition,  320;  loses  a  boat  in 
Lodore,  322;  has  a  difference 
with  the  wrecked  men,  322; 
three  of  his  men  leave  the  canyon 
and  are  killed,  324;  emerges  from 
the  Grand  Canyon,  324;  leaves 
the  Colorado,  325;  helped  by 
Brigham  Young,  325  ;  thought  to 
be  dead,  325;  at  St.  George  tries 
to  get  his  mail,  325 

Powell,  Walter,  325 

Prairie  buffalo,  38 

Prairies,  extent  of,  5 


Presidio  of  Tubac,  124 
Presidios,  122 

Presbyterians  in  Oregon,  308 
Promontory  Point,  Utah,  336 
Provost,  Etienne,  famous  trapper, 

233;  in  Brown's  Park,  1825,  240 
Pueblo,  Pike  at  site  of,  185;  Pike's 

structure  near,    225;  first  house 

built  there  by  Americans,  235 
Pueblo,   villages,  character  of,  for 

defence,  76;  storerooms,  80 
Puebloan,  explanation  of  term,  66; 

Navajos  mixed  with,  66 ;  location 

of,  66;  provision  against  famine, 

80 ;  rebellion  of,  117 
Purchase,  Gadsden,  325  ;  Louisiana, 

152-155,  161,  181,  219,  220 
Purgatoire  River,  Long  follows  it, 

226 
Pursley    (or   Purcell),  James,    176; 

goes  to  Santa  Fe,  177;  at  Santa 

Fe,  178;  makes  gunpowder,  178; 

finds    gold    on    head    of    Platte 

River,  192;  meets  Pike,  192 


Quires,  Pueblo  village,  114 
Quivira,  112,  113,  126 


Raccoon,  British  man-of*war,  ar- 
rives at  Astoria  and  renames  it 
Fort  George,  218 

Race  variation,  54 

Radisson,  first  discoverer  of  the 
Mississippi,  Preface,  vi.,  132. 

Railway,  transcontinental,  327  ; 
military  importance  of,  328; 
Union  and  Central  Pacific  com- 
panies formed,  328;  Amerind 
titles  extinguished,  329;  cash 
bonus,  329;  amount  built  per 
day,  330  ^ 

Railways,  Government  practically 
paid  for  them,  330 

Raleigh  in  North  Carolina,  131 

Ratafia,  268 

Rebellion  of  the  Puebloans,  117 

Red  Canyon  of  Green  River,  238; 
Ashley's  name  in,  240 

Red  River,  6,  181 ;  Pike's  plan  con- 
cerning, 184;  not  on  it,  190; 
boundary  of  Louisiana,*  221; 
Long  searches  for  it,  226;  elusive, 
227;  Sparks  attempts  to  explore 
it,  227 


Index 


355 


Redwood  forests,  8 

Ree,  tribe,  where  classed,  64 

Reid,  halberd  found  on  his  farm  in 
Missouri,  126 

Rendezvous  in  Green  River  Valley, 
described,  234,  256 

Ribera,  Don  Juan  Maria  de,  139 

Rigdon,  Sidney,  real  founder  of 
Mormonism,  305 

Rio,  Colorado  Grande,  same  as 
Seedskeedee,  4  ;  Grande  del 
Norte,  5;  Grande,  head  of,  6; 
de  Espiritu  Santo,  104  ;  de 
Buena  Guia,  the  Colorado,  1 1 1 ; 
de  Tiguex,  112;  del  Norte,  114; 
Grande  Towns,  map  of,  115;  de 
las  Vacas,  116;  de  Esperanza, 
117;  de  San  Roque,  142;  Grande 
Settlements,  175;  Conejos,  189; 
Grande,  Pike  on,  189;  Grande, 
trapping  on.  269 

River  of  Palms,  the  Rio  Grande, 
127 

River  of  the  West,  4,  140,  151; 
rumors  of,  138;  discovery  of 
mouth  by  Heceta,  142 

Rivers  of  the  Plains,  6 

Rivers,  of  the  Wilderness,  4,  327; 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  char- 
acter of,  204 

Rizner,  trapper,  206 

Robideai^,  255 

Robinson,  Doctor,  with  Pike,  132, 
190;  escorted  to  Chihuahua,  192 

Robinson,  trapper,  206,  208 

Roche  Jaune  River,  160,  164 

Rock  picture  of  buffalo  in  southern 
Utah,  36 

Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company, 
244;  rendezvous  in  Green  River 
Valley,  275;  repudiates  contract 
with  Wyeth,  283 

Rocky  Mountains,  first  view  of,  in 
the  north,  139;  Long's  first  view 
of,  223;  Bijeau  often  there  be- 
fore, 1820,  226;  amount  of  Gov- 
ernment aid  to  railways  through 
the,  329 

Rodgers,  Captain,  317 

Rodriguez  enters  New  Mexico,  114 

Rose,  Edward,  237,  263;  with 
Hunt.  207 

Ross's  Hole,  169 

Routa  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  173 

Routes  to  California,  309 

Ruddock,  Samuel  Adams,  233 

Ruins,  68;  of  Casa  Grande,  68 

Ruiz,  114 


Russia  agrees  on  boundary,  254 
Russian  explorations,  140;  claims, 

220 
Ruxton  quoted,  296;  cited,  296 


Sabine  River,  boundary  of  Louisi- 
ana, 221 

Sacajawea,  Chaboneau's  wife,  goes 
with  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition, 
163  ;  ill,  166 ;  discovers  a  brother, 
chief  of  the  Shoshones,  168 

Sachem,  office  of,  85 

Sacramento,  trapping  on. the,  255; 
city,  aid  to  Pacific  Railway,  330 

Sacred  tent  of  the  Dakotas,  51 

St.  Augustine,  date  of  founding, 
116;  first  settlement  by  Euro- 
peans within  the  borders  of  the 
United  States,  130 

St.  Charles,  161 

St.  George,  317;  Lamanites  to  be 
endowed  there,  317 

St.  Louis,  founded,  141;  develop- 
ing, 151;  point  of  departure  for 
the  Wilderness,  i  3 ;  in  1830, 
244;  intercourse  with  Santa  Fe, 

257 

Salcedo,  General,  192 

Salishan  stock,  range  of,  68 

Salleto,  Don  Ignatio,  captures 
Pike,  190 

Salt,  lagoons  of  New  Mexico,  8;  in 
California,  8 ;  where  obtained  by 
the  Amerinds,  72 

Salt  Lake,  early  visitors,  233 ;  Ash- 
ley meets  Ogden  there,  240; 
Bridger  visits  it,  242 ;  Ashley's 
men  circumnavigate  it,  242; 
Provost  there  before  Bridger, 
243 ;  Bonneville's  desire  to  ex- 
plore it,  276;  Fremont  sees  it, 
300;  Mormons  attracted,  304- 
305 ;  American  acquisition  of, 
308;  road  to  Denver  from,  ex- 
plored by  Berthoud  and  Bridger, 
315;  wrecked  trappers  go  there, 
322 

Salt  Lake  City,  306 

Salt  Lake  Valley,  visited  1776  by 
Escalante,  124 

Salvatierra,  Friar,  120 

San  Antonio  de  Padua,  Mission, 
when  founded,  122 

San  Antonio,  settlement  of,  134; 
Texas,  population  of,  in  1805, 
176 


56 


Index 


San  Carlos  de  Monterey,  when 
founded,  122 

San  Diego,  harbour,  visited  by  Viz- 
caino and  Cabrillo,  119;  Mission, 
when  founded,  122 

San  Fernando  Mission,  when 
founded,  122;  gold  found  there, 
308 

San  Francisco,  Bay,  missionaries 
go  there,  122;  Anza  founds  mis- 
sion there,  124;  aid  to  railway, 
330 

San  Francisco  de  Solano  de  So- 
noma Mission,  when  founded, 
122 

San  Francisco  mountains,  116 

San  Gabriel,  settlement  of,  116; 
Mission,  when  founded,  122 

Sangre  de  Cristo  Pass,  189;  crossed 
by  Fowler  and  Glenn,  235 

San  Jacinto,  battle  of,  won  by  Tex- 
ans,  298 

San  Joaquin  Valley,  Walker  goes 
up  it,  280 

San  Jose  Mission,  when  founded, 
122 

San  Juan,  New  Mexico,  130 ;  village 
of,  Onate's  first  settlement  at,i  1 6 ; 
Bautista  Mission,  when  founded, 
122;  Capistrano  Mission,  when 
founded,  122 

San  Luis  Obispo  Mission,  when 
founded  122, 

San  Luis  Park,  or  Valley,  235 

San  Luis  Rey  de  Francia  Mission, 
when  founded,  122 

San  Miguel  Mission,  when  founded, 
122 

San  Rafael  Mission,  when  founded, 
1 22 

San  Roque,  Rio  de,  same  as  the 
Columbia,  142 

San  Xavier  del  Bac  Mission,  often 
called  Bac,  124 

Santa  Ana,  General,  228 

Santa  Barbara  Mission,  when 
founded,  122 

Santa  Clara,  Mission,  when  founded, 
122;  River,  Mormons  settle  on 
the,  313 

Santa  Cruz  Mission,  when  founded, 
122 

Santa  Fe,  error  of  date  of  founding 
sometimes  given,  116;  founded 
by  Onate,  117;  population  of,  in 
1805,  175;  routes  to,  176;  Long 
cr'^s'^'^s  tr-^ils  to,  226:  the  Patties 
go  there,  246,  248;  first  waggons 


to,  272;  Walker  and  Cerr6  go 
there,  272;  Whitman  goes  there, 
290;  captured  by  Americans, 
300 

Santa  Fe  Trail,  257,  309 

Santa  Inez  Mission,  when  founded, 
I  22 

Santa  Maria  enters  New  Mexico, 
114 

Say,  T.,  with  Long,  223 

Scalp,  Thompson's,  preserved,  332 

Scalped  alive,  330 

Scalping  by  white  men,  243,  296 

Sciatoga  tribe,  or  Tushepaws,  214 

Scott,  General,  sent  to  Mexico,  300 

Secret  Town  Trestle,  329 

Seedskeedee,  same  as  Green  River 
and  Colorado,  4,  234,  250 

Selkirk,  Lord,  Red  River  Colony 
of,  242 

Sensitive  rose,  10 

Sequoia  trees,  8 

Seton,  Alfred,  272 

Settlements,  in  New  Mexico,  117; 
first,  in  California,  120;  first 
European,  in  the  United  States, 
130 

Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,  108,  109; 
identified  with  Zuni,  113;  map 
showing  probable  direction  of, 
from  Tiguex,  115 

Sevier,  River,  6;  trapping  on,  269 

Sevier  Lake,  6 

Sherman,  General,  328 

Shiam  Shaspusia,  name  given  by 
Crows  to  Meek,  294 

Shinumo  group,  67 

Shoshokoes,  277 

Shoshone,  stock,  range  of,  63,  64; 
house,  68 ,  Lewis  meets  some, 
168;  Falls,  205,  207,  209 

Sierra  Blanca,  189;  see  also  frontis- 
piece. 

Sierra  Nevada  range,  6;  Govern- 
ment aid  to  Pacific  railways 
through,  329 

Sign  language  of  the  Amerinds,  62 

Sihasapa,  Dakota  sub-tribe,  63 

Silver  mines  in  New  Mexico,  early, 
267 

Simpson,  Captain,  location  of  Ti- 
guex by,  113 

Simpson,  Sir  George,  in  charge  of 
Hudson  Bay  Company  in  Oregon, 
252 

Siouan  stock,  how  title  is  formed, 
61 ;  range  of,  63 

Sioux,  hostility  of,  243 


Index 


357 


Sitgreaves  reconnoitres  Arizona, 
316 

Sitka,  215 

Smallpox,  ravages  of,  and  other 
diseases,  97;  among  the  Plains 
tribes,  99 

Smith,  Fort,  Long  arrives  there, 
227 

Smith,  George  A.,  Jr.,  killed  by 
Navajos,  317 

Smith,  Jedediah  S.,  232;  with  Ash- 
ley, 234;  character,  234;  goes 
from  Salt  Lake  to  California, 
250 ;  goes  to  San  Gabriel  Mission, 
250;  crosses  the  Sierra,  251;  re- 
turns to  Salt  Lake,  251;  goes  to 
California  a  second  time,  251 ;  at- 
tacked by  Mohaves,  251 ;  thrown 
into  prison  by  the  Spaniards  in 
California,  251;  traps  to  the  Co- 
lumbia, 251;  circuits  he  made, 
252  ;  party  destroyed  by  Shastas, 
252;  reaches  Fort  Vancouver, 
252;  meets  Sublette's  search 
party,  252;  back  at  Salt  Lake, 
252;  killed  by  Comanches,  262; 
Gregg's  estimate  of,  262;  first  to 
traverse  Nevada,  269;  Walker's 
journey  compared  to  Smith's, 
280 

Smith,  Joseph,  Mormon  prophet, 
304;  murder  of,  305 

Smith,  Pegleg,  263;  see  Thomas  L. 
Smith. 

Smith,  Thomas  L.,  263;  amputates 
his  leg,  263  ;  called  Pegleg,  263  ; 
his  business,  263;  gives  up  raid- 
ing, 264;  he  and  Beckwourth 
make  a  raid,  264 

Snake  River,  210;  plain,  211 

Snow  sheds  in  the  Sierra,  331 

Socorro,  copper  mines  near,  267 

Soledad  Mission,  when  founded,  122 

Song  of  the  voyageur,  129 

Sonora,  Mission  of  Dolores  in,  120; 
Pass,  Sierra  Nevada  range,  280 

Sonoran  government  proclamation 
concerning  booty  taken  from 
natives,  265 

Soto,  Hernando  de,  126;  crosses 
the  Mississippi,  127;  death  and 
burial,  127;  forgotten,  133 

Sounds,  strange,  heard  by  Lewis 
and  Clark,  168 

South  Pass,  discovered  by  Andrew 
Henry,  234;  Bonneville  goes  over 
it,  272;  Fremont  selected  to  ex- 
plore it,  300 


South-west,  little  mention  of  the 
trapping  that  went  on  there,  269 

Spain  and  the  United  States,  re- 
lations of,  in  1805,  181;  agree 
on'  Louisiana  boundary,  220 

Spalding,  Reverend  H.  H.,  with 
Whitman,  289 

Spaniards  expelled  by  the  Pueblos 
from  New  Mexico,  117 

Spanish,  term  for  buffalo,  34;  re- 
strictions on  exploration,  117; 
Fork,  124;  destroy  French  in 
Florida,  130;  protest  against  the 
transfer  of  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States,  152;  objection  to 
Lewis  and  Clark's  entering 
Louisiana  before  transfer,  160; 
watch  Pike,  181;  intention  re- 
garding Pike,  190;  claims,  220; 
River,  208,  234;  women  on  Santa 
Fe  Trail,  258;  Trail,  270,  322 

Sparks,  one  of  Pike's  men,  freezes 
his  feet,  190;  Captain,  attempts 
to  explore  Red  River,  227 

Spike,  the  last,  335,  337 

Split  Mountain  Canyon,  294 

Sportsmen  go  to  the  Wilderness, 
287 

Stampede,  260 

Stanford,  Governor,  drives  the  last 
spike,  336 

Steamboat,  on  Long's  expedition, 
222;  to  mouth  of  Yellowstone, 
285 ;  first  above  Council  Bluffs, 
?85  ;  advantage  of,  on  the  Mis- 
souri, 286;  Colorado,  Esmeralda, 
General  Jesup,   Uncle  Sam,  315 

Stephens,  274 

Stillwater  Canyon,  Green  River, 
322 

Stock,  term  as  applied  to  Amerind 
tribal  groups  explained,  61 ;  lan- 
guages of  the  Amerinds,  61 

Stony  Mountains,  156 

Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  119 

Straits  of  Anian,  a  myth,  147 

Stuart,  James,  monument,  de- 
scribed by,  140 

Stuart,  Robert,  215,  216,  218,  252 

Sublette,  Milton,  264,  274 

Sublette,  William,  with  Ashley, 
234;  with  Fitzpatrick  and  Com- 
pany buys  out  Ashley,  244 ;  takec 
waggons  to  Wind  River,  272 

Subsistence  of  the  Amerind  tribes, 
70 

Succotash,  79 

Suite,  Benjamin,  Preface,  vii 


358 


Index 


Sumner,  Jack,  with  Major  Powell 
in  the  exploration  of  the  Colo- 
rado, 320;  goes  down  Colorado 
from  Green  River  Valley  to  tide- 
water, 325 

Supawn,  a  dish  made  of  cooked 
corn,  79 

Sutter's  ranch,  gold  found  there, 
308 

Sweetwater  River,  named  by  Ash- 
ley, 234 

Swindling  by  traders,  94 


Tabbaquena's  map,  89 

Tacoutche  Tesse,  not  the  Columbia, 
148 

Tamos  villages  seen  by  Espejo,  116 

Tampa  Bay,  Soto  lands  there,  126, 

Tanning  buffalo  robes,  48 

Taos,  location  of,  70 ;  Fowler  and 
Glenn  go  there,  235;  San  Fer- 
nandez de,  Pattie  arrives  there, 
248 ;  lightning,  268 

Tariff  put  on  American  goods  into 
New  Mexico,  268 

Taylor,  General,  ordered  to  occupy 
Rio  Grande  region,  300 

Temples  of  the  Virgin,  location  of, 
8 

Termini  of  Pacific  railways,  332 

Texas,  Spanish  settlements  in,  119; 
claim  to,  given  up  by  the  United 
States,  220;  status  of,  in  the 
Mexican  Republic,  298;  revolt, 
298;  triumphs  at  San  Jacinto, 
298;  western  boundary,  298;  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  300 

Thompson,  David,  to  forestall 
Astor  on  the  Columbia,  198;  ar- 
rives at  Astoria,  202 

Thompson,  Almon  Harris.  See 
dedication 

Thompson,  William,  scalped  alive, 
330;  his  scalp  preserved,  332 

Thorn,  Captain  Jonathan,  to  com- 
mand the  ship  to  establish  As- 
toria, 198;  killed  on  the  Tonquin, 
200 

Thousand  Mile  Tree,  328 

Three  Tetons  called  Pilot  Knobs 
by  Hunt,  208 

Tidal  bore,  Colorado  River,  249 

Tiguex,  1 1 1 ;  rebellion ,  112;  correct 
site  of,  113  ;  Espejo  arrives  there, 
114;  map  showing  correct  loca- 
tion of ,  1 1 5  ;  below  the  Puerco,  116 


Timpanogos,  Utah  Lake,  124 
Tobacco,  use  of,  by  Amerind  tribes, 

79 

Todd,  grant  from  Spain,  151;  goes 
up  the  Missouri,  151;  Reverend 
Doctor,  gives  a  prayer  at  the 
completion  of  the  trans-con- 
tinental railway  ceremony,  333, 
336 

Tonikan  stock,  68 

Tonka  wan  stock,  67 

Tonty,  133 

Tonquin,  the  doomed  vessel,  198; 
arrives  at  the  Columbia,  199; 
loses  men  in  trying  to  cross  the 
bar,  199;  goes  on  a  trading  voy- 
age, 200;  crew  massacred,  200 

Torrey,  303 

Tortillas,  267 

Totem,  85 

Tower  of  Babel,  Amerinds  sup- 
posed by  the  Mormons  to  be 
descendants  of  some  who  were 
dispersed  at  that  time,  304 

Townshend,  naturalist,  with  Wyeth, 
283 

Traders,  cupidity  of,  94,  286 

Trading-posts  on  Missouri,  151 

Trail,  of  Escalante,  124;  from  Zuni 
to  the  Crossing  of  the  Fathers, 

314 

Trail,  Creek,  168 

Trap,  beaver,  28;  where  set,  29; 
bait,  29;  picture  of,   29 

Trappers,  operations  of,  221,  253; 
qualities  of,  231;  treatment  of 
natives  by,  232;  did  their  own 
surgery,  288;  wrecked  in  Lodore, 
322 

Traveller's  Rest,  camp  of  Lewis  and 
Clark,  169 

Travois,  the,  89 

Treaty,  ending  war  of  181 2,  signed, 
2 1 9 ;  of  1 848,  between  Mexico  and 
the  United  States  relative  to  the 
boundary  of  Louisiana,  300;  of 
Gadsden  with  Mexico,  315 

Tribal  names,  86 

Trinchera  Valley,  235 

Trudeau's  House,  151 

Tucson,  124 

Turk,  the,  112 

Tumbull  takes  a  small  steamer  to 
the  Colorado,  315 

Tusayan,  no 

Tushepaws,  or  Sciatogas,  214  _  ^ 

Tutahaco,  group  of  Pueblos  visited 
by  Coronado,  114 


Index 


359 


u 


Ugarte,  Friar,  120 

Uinta,  range,  cut  into  by  Green 
River,  234;  Agency,  Goodman 
leaves  the  Powell  party  and  goes 
out  that  way,  322 

Umatilla,  Hunt  arrives  in  the  val- 
ley of,  213 

Uncle  Sam,  steamboat  on  the  Colo- 
rado, 315 

Union  Express  Company,  336 

Union  Pacific  Railway  formed,  328; 
Government  aid  to,  329 

United  States,  gains  all  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  144;  claims  in  18 18, 
220;  treaty  with  Mexico,  1848, 
300 

Utah,  Lake,  242 ;  called  Timpan- 
ogos,  124;  territory  established, 
308 

Ute,  tribe,  where  classed,  63  ;  action 
of,  on  approach  of  Arapaho  ene- 
mies, 297;  La  Bonte  goes  to  a 
camp,  297;  ford  of  the  Colorado, 
314;  Hamblin  crosses  by  the 
ford,  317 


Vaca,    Alvar    Nunez    Cabeza    de, 

wrecked     with     Narvaez,      103; 

first  white  man  to  penetrate  the 

Wilderness,  104;  starts  west,  106; 

meets  Spaniards  from  the  west 

coast,  107 
Vacas,  Rio  de  las,  116 
Vallar,  Andri,  216 
Valley  of  the  Colorado,  6 
Vancouver,  Point,  170 
Vancouver,  in  Deception  Bay  before 

Gray,  150 
Vanished  race  theories,  68 
Vaquero,   129;  Mexican,   267;  skill 

of,  267 
Vargis,    General,   reconquers   New 

Mexico  from  the  Pueblos,  117 
Verendrye,    Sieur   de   la,   138;    his 

expedition,  139;  his  route,  158 
Verrazano's  cruise,  128 
Veta  Pass,  189 
Villazur  expedition,  117,  138,  182; 

title  of  paper  on,  by  Bandelier, 

134 
Virgin      River,      Jedediah      Smith 

reaches   it   and   calls   it    Adams 

River,  250;  trapping  on  it,  269; 


difference  in  altitude  between 
Green  River  Station,  Wyoming, 
and  the  mouth  of,  320 

Virgin,  Thomas,  Virgin  River  per- 
hajDS  named  after  him,  250 

Vizcaino,  explorations  of,  119;  en- 
ters San  Diego  harbour,  119 

Volunteers,  California,  march  from 
Salt  Lake  to  Denver  over  new 
road  laid  out  by  Captain  Ber- 
thoud,  315 

Voyageurs,  songs  of„  129;  character 
of,  147;  seasick,  199;  with  Hunt, 
204 


W 


Waggons,  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail, 
258 ;  to  Wind  River  and  to  Green 
River,  272 
Walker,  272,  276-278^280 
Walla  Walla,  Fort,  281 
Wallows  of  Buffalo,  50 
Wapatoo  Island,  283 
War  party,  return  of  an  Amerind, 

100 
War  Road,  The,  100,  185 
Wasatch     Mountains,     5 ;     eastern 
limit  of  ancient  sea,  6 ;  Escalante 
crosses  them,  124 
Watermelons  preserved  all  winter, 

81 
Weaving  by  Amerinds,  93 
Western     Engineer,      The,     Long's 

steamboat,  222 
Westport,  starting  point  of  Santa 

Fe  Trail,  309 
Wet   Mountain   Valley,    Pike   goes 

through  it,   188 
Whipple,  exploration  of,  316 
Whirlpool  Canyon,   294 
Whiskey,   forced   on   natives,    286; 
still,    at    Fort    Union,    286;   pro- 
hibited by  the  Government,  286; 
trade,  dishonour  of,  287 
White    bears    (grizzlies),    53.    164; 
Dawson   killed   by,    235;   one   of 
Pattie's  men  killed  by,  247  ;  num- 
ber counted  in  one  day  by  Pattie, 
247. 
White  blood,  infusion  of,  in  Amer- 
ind tribes,  72 
White  buffalo,  skin  sacred,  51 
White  Mountains,  189 
Whitman,     Dr.     Marcus,    287-289, 

290, 308 
Wichita  tribe,  where  classed,  64 
Wickiup,  68 


36o 


Index 


/ 


Wilderness,  area,  i;  rivers,  4,  327; 
first  European  settlements  in 
the,  5 ;  climate  and  character, 
10,  230;  relief  map,  24;  great 
elevation  of,  230;  crimes  in,  232; 
resources  of,  in  the  opinion  of 
Pike,  of  Long,  of  Fremont,  304; 
final  great  problem,  320;  broken, 

324 

Wilkinson,  General,  164;  Lieuten- 
ant, 184 

Willamet,  170 

Willow  Island,  332 

Wind  River,  207  ;  Mountains, 
highest  peak  climbed  by  Fre- 
mont, 300 

Wolf,  mad,  275 

Wolfskin,  William,  opens  route  to 
California,  270;  at  Los  Angeles, 
270;  trail,  309;  referred  to, 
322 

Women,  first  European,  to  cross  the 
plains,  258 

Wonsits  Valley,  294,  322 

Wood  buffalo,  38 

Wyeth,  Nathaniel  J.,  goes  to  the 
Wilderness,  273  ;  first  continuous 
trip  across- "tne  continent,  275; 
builds  Fort  Hall,  283  ;  sells  out  to 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  283;  re- 
ports whiskey  still  of  Fort  Union, 
286 


^ 


X 

Xavier  del  Bac,  San,  mission,  124 


Yaqui  River,  Mexico,  Cabeza  de 
Vaca  reaches  it,  107 

Yellowstone,  8,  164;  geysers  rnd 
Great  Falls,  8;  Verendrye  p  sses, 
139;  named  before  Lewis  and 
Clark's  time,  196;  Ashley  de- 
scends with  furs,  242 

Yellowstone,  steamboat,  285 

Yosemite  Valley,  8 ;  first  whites 
there,  280 

Young,  Brigham,  becomes  head  of 
the  Mormon  Church,  305;  char- 
acter of,  305;  goes  to  Salt  Lake, 
306;  appointed  Governor  of 
Utah,  308;  has  a  difference  with 
the  Washington  Government, 
310 ;  directs  Jacob  Hamblin  to  ex- 
plore a  road  across  the  Colorado, 
317;  sends  help  to  Powell,  325 

Young,  Ewing,  264 

Yucca,  10 


Zuni,  stock,  location  of,  67 ;  not  the 
site  of  Cibola,  113;  Espejo  goes 
there.  116  ;  trail  from,  to  the 
Crossing  of  ,the  Fathers,  314 


Canada  Lynx. 
From  Wonderland,  1904.    Northern  Pacific  Railway. 


mmm 


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